Engineering polymer nanoparticles using cell membrane coating technology and their application in cancer treatments: Opportunities and challenges

A minimalist cancer cell membrane-shielded biomimetic nanoparticle for nasopharyngeal carcinoma active-targeting therapy

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common head and neck malignancy, which is characterized by high incidence and aggression with poor diagnosis and limited therapeutic opportunity. The innovative strategy for achieving precise NPC active-targeting drug delivery has emerged as a prominent focus in clinical research. Here, a minimalist cancer cell membrane (CCM) shielded biomimetic nanoparticle (NP) was designed for NPC active-targeting therapy. Chemotherapeutant model drug doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded in polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer. The PAMAM/DOX (PD) NP was further shielded by human CNE-2 NPC CCM. Characterization results verified that the biomimetic PAMAM/DOX@CCM (abbreviated as PDC) NPs had satisfactory physical properties with high DOX-loading and excellent stability. Cell experiments demonstrated that the CNE-2 membrane-cloaked PDC NPs presented powerful cellular uptake in the sourcing cells by homologous targeting and adhesive interaction. Further in vivo results confirmed that this biomimetic nanoplatform had extended circulation and remarkable tumor-targeting capability, and the PDC NPs effectively suppressed the progression of CNE-2 tumors by systemic administration. This CCM-shielded biomimetic NP displayed a minimalist paradigm nanoplatform for precise NPC therapy, and the strategy of CCM-shielded biomimetic drug delivery system (DDS) has great potential for extensive cancer active-targeting therapy.

Biomembrane camouflaged nanoparticles: A paradigm shifts in targeted drug delivery system

Targeted drug delivery has emerged as a pivotal approach within precision medicine, aiming to optimize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic side effects. Advanced biomimetic membrane-coated formulations have garnered significant interest from researchers as a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery, site-specific accumulation and heightened therapeutic outcomes. Biomimetic nanotechnology is able to retain the biological properties of the parent cell thus are able to exhibit superior targeting compared to conventional formulations. In this review, we have described different types of cell membrane camouflaged NPs. Mechanism of isolation and coating of the membranes along with the applications of each type of membrane and their mechanism to reach the desired site. Furthermore, a fusion of different membranes in order to prepare hybrid membrane biomimetic NPs which could possess better efficacy is discussed in detail in the review. Later, applications of the hybrid membrane-cloaked NPs along with current development were discussed in detail along with the challenges associated with it. Although membrane-cloaked NPs are currently in the preliminary stage of development, there is a huge potential to explore this biodegradable and biocompatible delivery system.

Unprecedented Approach of Fabrication and Analysis of a Bioactive PDMS/Hydroxyapatite/Graphene Nanocomposite Scaffold with a Vascular Channel to Combat Carcinogenesis

In the present investigation, natural bone-derived hydroxyapatite (HA, 2 wt %) and/or exfoliated graphene (Gr, 0.1 wt %)-embedded polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomeric films were prepared using a vascular method. The morphology, mechanical properties, crystallinity, and chemical structure of the composite films were evaluated. The in vitro biodegradation kinetics of the films indicates their adequate physiological stability. Most of the results favored PDMS/HA/Gr as a best composite scaffold having more than 703% elongation. A simulation study of the microfluidic vascular channel of the PDMS/HA/Gr scaffold suggests that the pressure drop at the outlet became greater (from 1.19 to 0.067 Pa) unlike velocity output (from 0.071 to 0.089 m/s), suggesting a turbulence-free laminar flow. Our bioactive scaffold material, PDMS/HA/Gr, showed highest cytotoxicity toward the lung cancer and breast cancer cells through Runx3 protein-mediated cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) generation. Our data and predicted mechanism also suggested that the PDMS/HA/Gr-supported peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) not only increased the generation of CTL but also upregulated the expression of RUNX3. Since the PDMS/HA/Gr scaffold-supported Runx3 induced CTL generation caused maximum cell cytotoxicity of breast cancer (MCF-7) and lung cancer (A549) cells, PDMS/HA/Gr can be treated as an excellent potential candidate for CTL-mediated cancer therapy.

T Cell and Natural Killer Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanoparticles for Cancer and Viral Therapies

Extensive research has been conducted on the application of nanoparticles in the treatment of cancer and infectious diseases. Due to their exceptional characteristics and flexible structure, they are classified as highly efficient drug delivery systems, ensuring both safety and targeted delivery. Nevertheless, nanoparticles still encounter obstacles, such as biological instability, absence of selectivity, recognition as unfamiliar elements, and quick elimination, which restrict their remedial capacity. To surmount these drawbacks, biomimetic nanotechnology has been developed that utilizes T cell and natural killer (NK) cell membrane-encased nanoparticles as sophisticated methods of administering drugs. These nanoparticles can extend the duration of drug circulation and avoid immune system clearance. During the membrane extraction and coating procedure, the surface proteins of immunological cells are transferred to the biomimetic nanoparticles. Such proteins present on the surface of cells confer several benefits to nanoparticles, including prolonged circulation, enhanced targeting, controlled release, specific cellular contact, and reduced in vivo toxicity. This review focuses on biomimetic nanosystems that are derived from the membranes of T cells and NK cells and their comprehensive extraction procedure, manufacture, and applications in cancer treatment and viral infections. Furthermore, potential applications, prospects, and existing challenges in their medical implementation are highlighted.

Surface Bio-engineered Polymeric Nanoparticles

Surface bio-engineering of polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) has emerged as a cornerstone in contemporary biomedical research, presenting a transformative avenue that can revolutionize diagnostics, therapies, and drug delivery systems. The approach involves integrating bioactive elements on the surfaces of PNPs, aiming to provide them with functionalities to enable precise, targeted, and favorable interactions with biological components within cellular environments. However, the full potential of surface bio-engineered PNPs in biomedicine is hampered by obstacles, including precise control over surface modifications, stability in biological environments, and lasting targeted interactions with cells or tissues. Concerns like scalability, reproducibility, and long-term safety also impede translation to clinical practice. In this review, these challenges in the context of recent breakthroughs in developing surface-biofunctionalized PNPs for various applications, from biosensing and bioimaging to targeted delivery of therapeutics are discussed. Particular attention is given to bonding mechanisms that underlie the attachment of bioactive moieties to PNP surfaces. The stability and efficacy of surface-bioengineered PNPs are critically reviewed in disease detection, diagnostics, and treatment, both in vitro and in vivo settings. Insights into existing challenges and limitations impeding progress are provided, and a forward-looking discussion on the field's future is presented. The paper concludes with recommendations to accelerate the clinical translation of surface bio-engineered PNPs.

Advances in Atherosclerosis Theranostics Harnessing Iron Oxide-Based Nanoparticles

Atherosclerosis, a multifaceted chronic inflammatory disease, has a profound impact on cardiovascular health. However, the critical limitations of atherosclerosis management include the delayed detection of advanced stages, the intricate assessment of plaque stability, and the absence of efficacious therapeutic strategies. Nanotheranostic based on nanotechnology offers a novel paradigm for addressing these challenges by amalgamating advanced imaging capabilities with targeted therapeutic interventions. Meanwhile, iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as compelling candidates for theranostic applications in atherosclerosis due to their magnetic resonance imaging capability and biosafety. This review delineates the current state and prospects of iron oxide nanoparticle-based nanotheranostics in the realm of atherosclerosis, including pivotal aspects of atherosclerosis development, the pertinent targeting strategies involved in disease pathogenesis, and the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of iron oxide nanoparticles. Furthermore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of theranostic nanomedicine approaches employing iron oxide nanoparticles, encompassing chemical therapy, physical stimulation therapy, and biological therapy. Finally, this review proposes and discusses the challenges and prospects associated with translating these innovative strategies into clinically viable anti-atherosclerosis interventions. In conclusion, this review offers new insights into the future of atherosclerosis theranostic, showcasing the remarkable potential of iron oxide-based nanoparticles as versatile tools in the battle against atherosclerosis.

Deciphering Oxygen-Independent Augmented Photodynamic Oncotherapy by Facilitating the Separation of Electron-Hole Pairs

Developing Type-I photosensitizers provides an attractive approach to solve the dilemma of inadequate efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) caused by the inherent oxygen consumption of traditional Type-II PDT and anoxic tumor microenvironment. The challenge for the exploration of Type-I PSs is to facilitate the electron transfer ability of photosensitization molecules for transforming oxygen or H2O to reactive oxygen species (ROS). Herein, we propose an electronic acceptor-triggered photoinduced electron transfer (a-PET) strategy promoting the separation of electron-hole pairs by marriage of two organic semiconducting molecules of a non-fullerene scaffold-based photosensitizer and a perylene diimide that significantly boost the Type-I PDT pathway to produce plentiful ROS, especially, inducing 3.5-fold and 2.5-fold amplification of hydroxyl (OH⋅) and superoxide (O2 -⋅) generation. Systematic mechanism exploration reveals that intermolecular electron transfer and intramolecular charge separation after photoirradiation generate a competent production of radical ion pairs that promote the Type-I PDT process by theoretical calculation and ultrafast femtosecond transient absorption (fs-TA) spectroscopy. By complementary tumor diagnosis with photoacoustic imaging and second near-infrared fluorescence imaging, this as-prepared nanoplatform exhibits fabulous photocytotoxicity in harsh hypoxic conditions and terrific cancer revoked abilities in living mice. We envision that this work will broaden the insight into high-efficiency Type-I PDT for cancer phototheranostics.

IRGD-modified erythrocyte membrane biomimetic temozolomide nanodots for the treatment of glioblastoma

The crossing of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) for conventional anticancer drugs is still a big challenge in treating glioma. The biomimetic nanoparticle delivery system has attracted increasing attention and has a promising future for crossing the BBB. Herein, we construct a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform using the erythrocyte membrane (EM) with the tumor-penetrating peptide iRGD (CRGDK/RGPD/EC) as a delivery, and the inner core loaded with the chemotherapeutic drug temozolomide (TMZ). The resulting biomimetic nanoparticle has perfect biocompatibility and stealth ability, which will provide more chances to escape the reticuloendothelial system (RES) entrapment, and increase the opportunity to enter the tumor site. Moreover, the decorated iRGD has been extensively used to actively targeting and deliver therapeutic agents across the BBB into glioma tissue. We show that this biomimetic delivery of TMZ with a diameter of 22 nm efficiently slowed the growth of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and increased the survival rate of the 30 d from 0% to 100%.

Focus on the performance enhancement of micro/nanomotor-based biosensors

Micro/nanomotors (MNMs) emerge as a vital candidate for biosensing due to its nano-size structure, high surface-to-area ratio, directional mobility, biocompatibility, and ease of functionalization, therefore being able to detect objects with high efficiency, precision, and selectivity. The driving mode, nanostructure, materials property, preparation technique, and biosensing applications have been thoroughly discussed in publications. To promote the MNMs-based biosensors from in vitro to in vivo, it is necessary to give a comprehensive discussion from the perspective of sensing performances enhancement. However, until now, there is few reviews dedicated to the systematic discussion on the multiple performance enhancement schemes and the current challenges of MNMs-based biosensors. Bearing it in mind and based on our research experience in this field, we summarized the enhancement methods for biosensing properties such as sensitivity, selectivity, detection time, biocompatibility, simplify system operation, and environmental availability. We hope that this review provides the readers with fundamental understanding on performance enhancement schemes for MNMs-based biosensors.

Recent advances of polymeric nanoplatforms for cancer treatment: smart delivery systems (SDS), nanotheranostics and multidrug resistance (MDR) inhibition

Nanotheranostics is a promising field that combines the benefits of diagnostic and treatment into a single nano-platform that not only administers treatment but also allows for real-time monitoring of therapeutic response, decreasing the possibility of under/over-drug dosing. Furthermore, developing smart delivery systems (SDSs) for cancer theranostics that can take advantage of various tumour microenvironment (TME) conditions (such as deformed tumour vasculature, various over-expressed receptor proteins, reduced pH, oxidative stress, and resulting elevated glutathione levels) can aid in achieving improved pharmacokinetics, higher tumour accumulation, enhanced antitumour efficacy, and/or decreased side effects and multidrug resistance (MDR) inhibition. Polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) are being widely investigated in this regard due to their unique features such as small size, passive/active targeting possibility, better pharmaceutical kinetics and biological distribution, decreased adverse reactions of the established drugs, inherent inhibitory properties to MDR efflux pump proteins, as well as the feasibility of delivering numerous therapeutic substances in just one design. Hence in this review, we have primarily discussed PNPs based targeted and/or controlled SDSs in which we have elaborated upon different TME mediated nanotheranostic platforms (NTPs) including active/passive/magnetic targeting platforms along with pH/ROS/redox-responsive platforms. Besides, we have elucidated different imaging guided cancer therapeutic platforms based on four major cancer imaging techniques i.e., fluorescence/photo-acoustic/radionuclide/magnetic resonance imaging, Furthermore, we have deliberated some of the most recently developed PNPs based multimodal NTPs (by combining two or more imaging or therapy techniques on a single nanoplatform) in cancer theranostics. Moreover, we have provided a brief update on PNPs based NTP which are recently developed to overcome MDR for effective cancer treatment. Additionally, we have briefly discussed about the tissue biodistribution/tumour targeting efficiency of these nanoplatforms along with recent preclinical/clinical studies. Finally, we have elaborated on various limitations associated with PNPs based nanoplatforms.

Bacteria and Bacterial Components as Natural Bio-Nanocarriers for Drug and Gene Delivery Systems in Cancer Therapy

Bacteria and bacterial components possess multifunctional properties, making them attractive natural bio-nanocarriers for cancer diagnosis and targeted treatment. The inherent tropic and motile nature of bacteria allows them to grow and colonize in hypoxic tumor microenvironments more readily than conventional therapeutic agents and other nanomedicines. However, concerns over biosafety, limited antitumor efficiency, and unclear tumor-targeting mechanisms have restricted the clinical translation and application of natural bio-nanocarriers based on bacteria and bacterial components. Fortunately, bacterial therapies combined with engineering strategies and nanotechnology may be able to reverse a number of challenges for bacterial/bacterial component-based cancer biotherapies. Meanwhile, the combined strategies tend to enhance the versatility of bionanoplasmic nanoplatforms to improve biosafety and inhibit tumorigenesis and metastasis. This review summarizes the advantages and challenges of bacteria and bacterial components in cancer therapy, outlines combinatorial strategies for nanocarriers and bacterial/bacterial components, and discusses their clinical applications.

Effective myocardial infarction treatment by targeted accumulation of Sulforaphane using porous magnetic silica nanoparticles

Myocardial infarction (MI) is a common cardiovascular pathology that induces extensive sterile inflammation during its early stages, posing a severe threat to human health. Effectively modulating cardiac inflammation may improve post-MI outcomes. Unfortunately, owing to the side effects of therapeutic drugs and cardiac coronary artery occlusion, current MI drugs are sub-optimal for the clinical management of ischemic myocardia. Sulforaphane (SFN) has been adopted for MI treatment due to its myocardial protective effects and low toxicity. However, the targeted accumulation of SFN in infarcted areas remains challenging. Herein, porous magnetic silica nanoparticles (PMSNs) were synthesized and loaded with SFN to improve the specificity of targeted SFN delivery to infarcted areas in mouse models of MI. PMSNs loaded with SFN (PMSNs + SFN) decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus leading to the improvement of cardiac function and cell survival without adverse effects. To further explore SFN's mechanisms of action in MI, a cellular (in vitro) model was established via oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD). HSF1 and Nrf2 knockdown resulted in a decrease of SFN-induced HSP70 expression in OGD cells. Moreover, as a result of HSP70 knockdown, the pro-survival and anti-inflammatory effects of SFN were blocked in OGD cells. The level of pro-inflammatory cytokines decreased upon HSP70 overexpression, and cell survival rate increased under OGD conditions. In summary, the results confirm that PMSNs are capable of transporting SFN to infarcted areas in the myocardium, where the drug exerts cardioprotective effects against myocardial injury by up-regulating HSP70 through Nrf2/HSF1.

"Bioinspired" Membrane-Coated Nanosystems in Cancer Theranostics: A Comprehensive Review

Achieving precise cancer theranostics necessitates the rational design of smart nanosystems that ensure high biological safety and minimize non-specific interactions with normal tissues. In this regard, "bioinspired" membrane-coated nanosystems have emerged as a promising approach, providing a versatile platform for the development of next-generation smart nanosystems. This review article presents an in-depth investigation into the potential of these nanosystems for targeted cancer theranostics, encompassing key aspects such as cell membrane sources, isolation techniques, nanoparticle core selection, approaches for coating nanoparticle cores with the cell membrane, and characterization methods. Moreover, this review underscores strategies employed to enhance the multi-functionality of these nanosystems, including lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic engineering, and genetic modification. Additionally, the applications of these bioinspired nanosystems in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics are discussed, along with the recent advances in this field. Through a comprehensive exploration of membrane-coated nanosystems, this review provides valuable insights into their potential for precise cancer theranostics.

The application of nanoparticles in immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide, however, current clinical diagnostic and treatment approaches remain relatively limited, creating an urgent need for the development of effective technologies. Immunotherapy has emerged as a powerful treatment strategy for advanced cancer. The number of clinically approved drugs for HCC immunotherapy has been increasing. However, it remains challenging to improve their transport and therapeutic efficiency, control their targeting and release, and mitigate their adverse effects. Nanotechnology has recently gained attention for improving the effectiveness of precision therapy for HCC. We summarize the key features of HCC associated with nanoparticle (NPs) targeting, release, and uptake, the roles and limitations of several major immunotherapies in HCC, the use of NPs in immunotherapy, the properties of NPs that influence their design and application, and current clinical trials of NPs in HCC, with the aim of informing the design of delivery platforms that have the potential to improve the safety and efficacy of HCC immunotherapy，and thus, ultimately improve the prognosis of HCC patients.

Using design of experiments (DoE) to optimize performance and stability of biomimetic cell membrane-coated nanostructures for cancer therapy

Introduction: Cell membrane-covered biomimetic nanosystems have allowed the development of homologous nanostructures to bestow nanoparticles with enhanced biointerfacing capabilities. The stability of these structures, however, still represents a challenge for the scientific community. This study is aimed at developing and optimizing cell derived membrane-coated nanostructures upon applying design of experiments (DoE) to improve the therapeutic index by homotypic targeting in cancer cells. Methods: Important physicochemical features of the extracted cell membrane from tumoral cells were assessed by mass spectrometry-based proteomics. PLGA-based nanoparticles encapsulating temozolomide (TMZ NPs) were successfully developed. The coating technology applying the isolated U251 cell membrane (MB) was optimized using a fractional two-level three-factor factorial design. All the formulation runs were systematically characterized regarding their diameter, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP). Experimental conditions generated by DoE were also subjected to morphological studies using negative-staining transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Its short-time stability was also assessed. MicroRaman and Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies and Confocal microscopy were used as characterization techniques for evaluating the NP-MB nanostructures. Internalization studies were carried out to evaluate the homotypic targeting ability. Results and Discussion: The results have shown that nearly 80% of plasma membrane proteins were retained in the cell membrane vesicles after the isolation process, including key proteins to the homotypic binding. DoE analysis considering acquired TEM images reveals that condition run five should be the best-optimized procedure to produce the biomimetic cell-derived membrane-coated nanostructure (NP-MB). Storage stability for at least two weeks of the biomimetic system is expected once the original characteristics of diameter, PDI, and ZP, were maintained. Raman, FTIR, and confocal characterization results have shown the successful encapsulation of TMZ drug and provided evidence of the effective coating applying the MB. Cell internalization studies corroborate the proteomic data indicating that the optimized NP-MB achieved specific targeting of homotypic tumor cells. The structure should retain the complex biological functions of U251 natural cell membranes while exhibiting physicochemical properties suitable for effective homotypic recognition. Conclusion: Together, these findings provide coverage and a deeper understanding regarding the dynamics around extracted cell membrane and polymeric nanostructures interactions and an in-depth insight into the cell membrane coating technology and the development of optimized biomimetic and bioinspired nanostructured systems.

Engineered Magnetic Polymer Nanoparticles Can Ameliorate Breast Cancer Treatment Inducing Pyroptosis-Starvation along with Chemotherapy

Nanotechnology has shown a revolution in cancer treatments, including breast cancers. However, there remain some challenges and translational hurdles. Surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are the primary treatment methods for breast cancer, although drug combinations showed promising results in preclinical studies. Herein we report the development of a smart drug delivery system (DDS) to efficiently treat breast cancer by pyroptosis-starvation-chemotherapeutic combination. Cancer-starvation agent glucose oxidase was chemically attached to synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles which were entrapped inside poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) along with apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain plasmid and paclitaxel (PTX). An emulsion solvent evaporation method was used to prepare the DDS. The surface of the DDS was modified with chitosan to which aptamer was attached to achieve site-specific targeting. Hence, the prepared DDS could be targeted to a tumor site by both external magnet and aptamer to obtain an enhanced accumulation of drugs at the tumor site. The final size of the aptamer-decorated DDS was less than 200 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency of PTX was 76.5 ± 2.5%. Drug release from the developed DDS was much higher at pH 5.5 than at pH 7.4, ensuring the pH sensitivity of the DDS. Due to efficient dual targeting of the DDS, in vitro viability of 4T1 cells was reduced to 12.1 ± 1.6%, whereas the nontargeted group and free PTX group could reduce the viability of cells to 29.2 ± 2.4 and 46.2 ± 1.6%, respectively. Our DDS showed a synergistic effect in vitro and no severe side effects in vivo. This DDS has strong potential to treat various cancers.