Foreign language training as cognitive therapy for age-related cognitive decline: a hypothesis for future research

Lexical tone perception and learning in older adults: A review and future directions

While the literature is well represented in accounting for how aging influences segmental properties of speech, less is known about its influences on suprasegmental properties such as lexical tones. In addition, foreign language learning is increasingly endorsed as being a potential intervention to boost cognitive reserve and overall well-being in older adults. Empirical studies on young learners learning lexical tones are aplenty in comparison with older learners. Challenges in this domain for older learners might be different due to aging and other learner-internal factors. This review consolidates behavioural and neuroscientific research related to lexical tone, speech perception, factors characterising learner groups, and other variables that would influence lexical tone perception and learning in older adults. Factors commonly identified to influence tone learning in younger adult populations, such as musical experience, language background, and motivation in learning a new language, are discussed in relation to older learner groups and recommendations to boost lexical tone learning in older age are provided based on existing studies.

The effects of language learning on cognitive functioning and psychosocial well-being in cognitively healthy older adults: A semi-blind randomized controlled trial

This study investigated the impact of language learning in comparison to other complex learning activities on cognitive functioning and psychosocial well-being in cognitively healthy, community-dwelling older adults. In a randomized controlled trial, 43 Dutch functionally monolinguals aged 65-78 completed a three-month English course (n = 15), music training (n = 13), or a lecture series (n = 15). Cognitive functioning (global cognition, cognitive flexibility, episodic memory, working memory, verbal fluency, and attention) and psychosocial well-being were assessed before and immediately after the intervention, and at a four-month follow-up. The language learners significantly improved on episodic memory and cognitive flexibility. However, the magnitude of cognitive change did not significantly differ between the language learning and music training conditions, except for a larger positive change in cognitive flexibility for the language learners from pretest to follow-up. Our results suggest that language learning in later life can improve some cognitive functions and fluency in the additional language, but that its unique effects seem limited.

Second language learning in older adults modulates Stroop task performance and brain activation

Introduction

Numerous studies have highlighted cognitive benefits in lifelong bilinguals during aging, manifesting as superior performance on cognitive tasks compared to monolingual counterparts. Yet, the cognitive impacts of acquiring a new language in older adulthood remain unexplored. In this study, we assessed both behavioral and fMRI responses during a Stroop task in older adults, pre- and post language-learning intervention.

Methods

A group of 41 participants (age:60-80) from a predominantly monolingual environment underwent a four-month online language course, selecting a new language of their preference. This intervention mandated engagement for 90 minutes a day, five days a week. Daily tracking was employed to monitor progress and retention. All participants completed a color-word Stroop task inside the scanner before and after the language instruction period.

Results

We found that performance on the Stroop task, as evidenced by accuracy and reaction time, improved following the language learning intervention. With the neuroimaging data, we observed significant differences in activity between congruent and incongruent trials in key regions in the prefrontal and parietal cortex. These results are consistent with previous reports using the Stroop paradigm. We also found that the amount of time participants spent with the language learning program was related to differential activity in these brain areas. Specifically, we found that people who spent more time with the language learning program showed a greater increase in differential activity between congruent and incongruent trials after the intervention relative to before.

Discussion

Future research is needed to determine the optimal parameters for language learning as an effective cognitive intervention for aging populations. We propose that with sufficient engagement, language learning can enhance specific domains of cognition such as the executive functions. These results extend the understanding of cognitive reserve and its augmentation through targeted interventions, setting a foundation for future investigations.

The Influence of Separate and Combined Exercise and Foreign Language Acquisition on Learning and Cognition

Aging contributes significantly to cognitive decline. Aerobic exercise (AE) has been shown to induce substantial neuroplasticity changes, enhancing cognitive and brain health. Likewise, recent research underscores the cognitive benefits of foreign language learning (FLL), indicating improvements in brain structure and function across age groups. However, the lack of a comprehensive paradigm integrating language learning with exercise limits research on combined effects in older adults. In order to address this gap, we devised a novel approach using a virtual world tourism scenario for auditory-based language learning combined with aerobic cycling. Our study examines the impact of simultaneous AE and FLL integration on cognitive and language learning outcomes compared to FLL alone. A total of 20 older adults were randomly assigned to AE + FLL and FLL-only groups. The results revealed significantly improved Spanish language learning outcomes in both combined and language learning-only groups. Additionally, significant cognitive function improvement was observed in the FLL group following short-term language learning.

A Novel Dual-Language Touch-Screen Intervention to Slow Down Cognitive Decline in Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background and Objectives

Bilingualism has been suggested to protect older adults from cognitive aging and delay the onset of dementia. However, no studies have systematically explored bilingual usage as a tool to mitigate age-related cognitive decline. We developed the Dual-Language Intervention in Semantic memory-Computerized (DISC), a novel cognitive training program with three training tasks (object categorization, verbal fluency, and utility of things) designed specifically for older adults that featured two modes: single-language (SL) exposure mode and dual-language (DL) exposure mode.

Research Design and Methods

The final sample included 50 cognitively healthy (CH; 33 female, M age = 72.93 years, range = 53.08-87.43 years) and 48 cognitively impaired (CI; 35 female, M age = 80.93 years, range = 62.31-96.67 years) older adults, randomly assigned them into one of three groups: SL group, DL group, and control group (no training). Participants in SL and DL groups used DISC in either SL mode (i.e., training instructions were spoken in only one language throughout the entire training) or DL mode (i.e., training instructions alternated between two languages), respectively, for 24 sessions. Participants in the control group were asked to continue with their normal daily activities (e.g., playing bingo and reading newspapers).

Results

For CH older adults, we found significant improvements in the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) Trial 5 score and the Clock Drawing Test score in the DL group but not in the SL and control groups posttraining compared with pretraining. For CI older adults, there was a delayed improvement in the RAVLT Trial 1, six months later.

Discussion and Implications

Our findings provided novel evidence that implementing DL cognitive training benefits CH older adult's late verbal learning and visuospatial construction skills, and a delayed improvement in CI older adults' early verbal learning abilities.

Enhancing Foreign Language Learning Approaches to Promote Healthy Aging: A Systematic Review

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the best approaches to teaching a foreign language to older people to help them achieve the desired results and explore their benefits. This review strictly follows the PRISMA methodology for systematic reviews and meta-analyses to identify the core experimental studies that deal with the topic of foreign language learning approaches among the older generations. Altogether eight studies detected were included in the systematic review. The available sources were found in Web of Science and Scopus. The findings indicate that foreign language learning can promote seniors' welfare and successful aging despite their learning outcomes, which means that the key benefit for third-age foreign language learners while learning a foreign language is not the achieved proficiency level, but the feeling of subjective satisfaction. This can be a good incentive to achieve better learning outcomes, provided that learners have been offered a pleasant and safe learning environment, using suitable learning approaches during which they can build on their acquired knowledge and experience, as well as discuss the topics they are interested in. Thus, foreign language teachers play an important part in seniors' educational process because their teaching methods and materials when adapted to the elderly's educational needs can have a positive impact on the maintenance and possibly, enhancement of the older people's cognitive functions and on the improvement of their mental activity, which consequently maintains their healthy aging.

Language Learning for People Living with Dementia and Their Caregivers: Feasibility and the Quality of Experience

BACKGROUND

A body of research from around the world has reported positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive ageing and dementia. However, little is known about whether foreign language learning could be applied as an intervention for people already living with dementia. Yet, before it is possible to determine the efficacy of language courses as an intervention for people living with dementia (PLWD), it is necessary to establish whether such an intervention is feasible. Our study explored this possibility.

METHODS

We conducted an exploratory study to examine the feasibility and tolerability of 2-week Italian beginner courses for PLWD in early stages and their family carers in two Scottish Dementia Resource Centres (DRCs). The courses were delivered by trained tutors from Lingo Flamingo, a social enterprise specialising in language teaching for older learners and learners with dementia. Twelve PLWD and seven carers participated in the study. Focus groups preceded and followed the courses. Additional post-course open interviews with the DRC managers were conducted, with a follow-up via telephone approximately one year later.

RESULTS

Qualitative content analysis resulted in 12 themes, 5 reflected in the interview schedule and 7 arising from the focus groups and interviews. Overall, the courses were perceived positively by PLWD, carers, and DRC managers, although a few logistically and linguistically challenging aspects were also mentioned. The courses were found to positively impact both the individual by increasing self-esteem and producing a sense of accomplishment as well as the group by creating a sense of community. Notably, no adverse effects (in particular no confusion or frustration) were reported.

CONCLUSION

The positive outcomes of our study open a novel avenue for future research to explore foreign language training in dementia as an intervention and its implications.

Online language learning in the third-age: Concrete recommendations to improve seniors' learning experiences

Online activities have spiked due to the COVID-19 pandemic, including language learning activities. As the world is aging, this affects senior citizens too. Yet, few studies have been conducted studying online (language) learning in this age-group. Moreover, no concrete pointers exist on how to go about such an online language learning course. This paper examines what should be considered when designing and implementing online language learning courses for seniors. To that end we present data from 73 senior language learners from two independent language learning contexts: the Netherlands and Scotland. The data were collected between May 2020 and August 2021. Data includes spoken and written samples from lessons, focus groups, interviews and questionnaires. Given the qualitative nature of the data and the aim of identifying patterns of meaning across the respective datasets, a reflexive thematic analysis (TA) approach was adopted. We employed an inductive approach to coding, using both semantic (explicit or overt) and latent (implicit, underlying) coding frameworks, in order to inform two overarching themes: "Navigating the digital highway" and "Camera ready for new friends." We discuss these themes and their sub-themes and arrive at concrete recommendations for the third-age language learning classroom.

Cross-Language Recall Abilities in Balanced Bilinguals: An Exploratory Study

Recall deals with the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Bilinguals have greater flexibility for recall as the person will have multiple language choices to come out with the target word. In other words, a bilingual will have more lexical choices to retrieve the target word. The current study investigates cross-language recall abilities in balanced bilinguals. A cohort group of participants were divided into three subgroups. The first sub-group of participants was asked to recall in second language while the stimuli/ target words were presented in the first language. The second group of participants was asked to recall in their first language while the stimuli/target words were presented in the second language. The third group of participants was allowed to carry out a free recall task. The descriptive analysis backed by statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between three groups suggesting that balanced bilinguals would have greater cognitive flexibility resulting in superior cross-language recall abilities in this population.

Effects of Meditation Training and Non-Native Language Training on Cognition in Older Adults: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Nonpharmacological interventions are a potential strategy to maintain or promote cognitive functioning in older adults.

Objective

To investigate the effects of 18 months' meditation training and 18 months' non-native language training on cognition in older adults.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This study was a secondary analysis of the Age-Well trial, an 18-month, observer-masked, randomized clinical trial with 3 parallel arms. Eligible participants were community-dwelling adults aged 65 years and older residing in Caen, France. Participants were enrolled from November 24, 2016, to March 5, 2018, and randomly assigned (1:1:1) to meditation training, non-native language (English) training, or no intervention arms. Final follow-up was completed on February 6, 2020. Data were analyzed between December 2021 and November 2022.

Interventions

The 18-month meditation and non-native language training interventions were structurally equivalent and included 2-hour weekly group sessions, daily home practice of 20 minutes or longer, and 1 day of more intensive home practice. The no intervention group was instructed not to change their habits and to continue living as usual.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Cognition (a prespecified secondary outcome of the Age-Well trial) was assessed preintervention and postintervention via the Preclinical Alzheimer Cognitive Composite 5 (PACC5), and composites assessing episodic memory, executive function, and attention.

Results

Among 137 randomized participants, 2 were excluded for not meeting eligibility criteria, leaving 135 (mean [SD] age, 69.3 [3.8] years; 83 female [61%]) eligible for analysis. One participant among the remaining 135 did not complete the trial. In adjusted mixed effects models, no interaction effects were observed between visit and group for PACC5 (F2,131.39 = 2.58; P = .08), episodic memory (F2,131.60 = 2.34; P = .10), executive function (F2,131.26 = 0.89; P = .41), or attention (F2,131.20 = 0.34; P = .79). Results remained substantively unchanged across sensitivity and exploratory analyses.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this secondary analysis of an 18-month randomized trial, meditation and non-native language training did not confer salutary cognitive effects. Although further analyses are needed to explore the effects of these interventions on other relevant outcomes related to aging and well-being, these findings did not support the use of these interventions for enhancing cognition in cognitively healthy older adults.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02977819.

A Pilot Randomized Trial of a Purposeful and Stimulating Volunteer Opportunity: Program Satisfaction and Potential Impacts on Perceived Cognitive Change in a Neurologically Mixed Sample of Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Purposeful social interactions are important for healthy aging. We conducted a pilot trial of SPEAK! (Seniors Promoting English Acquisition and Knowledge), an intervention providing older volunteers with a safe, accessible opportunity to converse via webcam with English-language learners.

METHODS

A neurologically mixed sample of older adults was randomized to 8 weekly, webcam conversations with English-language learners or a waitlist control. Outcomes included the Cognitive Change Index (CCI) and surveys of program satisfaction. Here, we report on session completion, intervention satisfaction, and follow-up CCI scores. Exploratory analyses of CCI intervention effects controlled for baseline CCI scores and the interaction between group and baseline CCI.

RESULTS

Participants (N=38) were on average 70.8 years of age, 28/38 were White, and 16/38 demonstrated possible cognitive impairment on the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS). Pairs completed 115/136 sessions (85%) and all volunteers said they would recommend the program. Controlling for the interaction between baseline CCI and randomization group, SPEAK! volunteers had better follow-up CCI scores than controls (P=0.018). Improvements in CCI were greater among participants with fewer baseline memory problems.

CONCLUSIONS

SPEAK! was feasible and appreciated by older adults with and without cognitive impairment. Larger studies should confirm benefits for memory and other determinants of quality of life.

Native Language Perceptual Sensitivity Predicts Nonnative Speech Perception Differently in Younger and Older Singaporean Bilinguals

PURPOSE

We investigate in this study how individual variability in native language speech perception (termed Perceptual Sensitivity) influences nonnative speech perception in Singaporean Tamil-English bilinguals. Further, we assess if and how contextual and demographic factors influence Perceptual Sensitivity in the acquired languages and if the influence of Perceptual Sensitivity on nonnative speech perception is different across younger and older bilinguals.

METHOD

Perceptual Sensitivity in the native languages was examined by implementing Tamil and English gating tasks in 87 Singaporean Tamil-English bilinguals from two age groups (younger: 19-33 years; older: 55-70 years). Mandarin lexical tone discrimination was implemented as a measure of nonnative speech perception.

RESULTS

There was a wide range of variability in Perceptual Sensitivity scores in both languages across both age groups. Perceptual Sensitivity in the first native language (L1 Tamil) was a robust predictor of nonnative speech perception across both age groups, especially for the older bilinguals. However, general intelligence emerged as a stronger predictor than Tamil Perceptual Sensitivity in younger bilinguals. The influence of Tamil Perceptual Sensitivity on lexical tone perception was not tone-specific, supporting a general enhancement of lexical tone perception with better Tamil Perceptual Sensitivity. There was an influence of demographic factors on English Perceptual Sensitivity in older bilinguals, but not for Tamil and not in younger bilinguals.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings corroborate with previous studies in showing that native language Perceptual Sensitivity is positively associated with and predicts nonnative speech perception in younger and older adulthood regardless of language similarity but to varying degrees. Specifically, the influence of Perceptual Sensitivity on nonnative speech perception is stronger in older adulthood, suggesting a possible shift in reliance on crystallized language knowledge with age. Proficiency and use, among other demographic and language variables, do not appear to influence L1 Perceptual Sensitivity in a lesser used language (Tamil) as significantly as previously assumed.

Improvement in executive function for older adults through smartphone apps: a randomized clinical trial comparing language learning and brain training

Bilingualism has been linked to improved executive function and delayed onset of dementia, but it is unknown whether similar benefits can be obtained later in life through deliberate intervention. Given the logistical hurdles of second language acquisition in a randomized trial for older adults, few interventional studies have been done thus far. However, recently developed smartphone apps offer a convenient means to acquire skills in a second language and can be compared with brain training apps specifically designed to improve executive function. In a randomized clinical trial, 76 adults aged 65-75 were assigned to either 16 weeks of Spanish learning using the app Duolingo 30 minutes a day, an equivalent amount of brain training using the app BrainHQ, or a waitlist control condition. Executive function was assessed before and after the intervention with preregistered (NCT03638882) tests previously linked to better performance in bilinguals. For two of the primary measures: incongruent Stroop color naming and 2-back accuracy, Duolingo provided equivalent benefits as BrainHQ compared to a control group. On reaction time for N-back and Simon tests, the BrainHQ group alone experienced strong gains over the other two groups. Duolingo was rated as more enjoyable. These results suggest that app-based language learning may provide some similar benefits as brain training in improving executive function in seniors but has less impact on processing speed. However, future advancements in app design may optimize not only the acquisition of the target language but also the side benefits of the language learning experience.

Cognitive Decline Associated with Aging

Cognitive decline is one of the most distinct signs of aging, and age-related cognitive decline is a heterogeneous issue varying in different cognitive domains and has significant differences among older adults. Identifying characteristics of cognitive aging is the basis of cognitive disease for early-detection and healthy aging promotion. In the current chapter, age-related decline of main cognitive domains, including sensory perception, memory, attention, executive function, language, reasoning, and space navigation ability are introduced respectively. From these aspects of cognition, we focus on the age-related effects, age-related cognitive diseases, and possible mechanisms of cognitive aging.

Foreign language learning can improve response inhibition in individuals with lower baseline cognition: Results from a randomized controlled superiority trial

Introduction

The world's population is aging, increasing the prevalence of dementia. Recently, foreign language learning in later life has been suggested to improve cognition and thus support healthy cognitive aging. To date, however, there are only a few studies with conflicting findings. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether learning a foreign language can improve executive attention and executive functions in healthy older adults. Additionally, we sought to identify factors affecting cognitive change in foreign language learners, such as cognitive reserve, previous foreign knowledge and usage, and global cognition at baseline.

Methods

In a randomized-controlled trial, we assigned 34 monolinguals between the ages of 65 and 80 to a language learning or a waiting list control group. The participants enrolled in a Spanish course for beginners that met five days a week for 1.5 h for a total of 3 weeks. The waiting list control group received no intervention but had the opportunity to join the language training at the end of the study. All participants underwent an assessment of executive attention (primary outcome), executive functions, verbal fluency, and attention (secondary outcomes) before, immediately after the course, or after a waiting period of 3 weeks for the control group and 3 months after the course or the waiting period.

Results

Foreign language learning did not significantly improve primary or secondary outcomes, neither immediately nor 3 months after the course. However, moderation analyses revealed that participants with lower global baseline cognition tended to improve more on response inhibition than individuals with higher baseline cognition. This relationship was not evident in the waiting list control group.

Discussion

Our results suggest that studying a foreign language does not generally improve executive attention or executive functioning. Nevertheless, individuals with poorer baseline cognition may benefit cognitively from foreign language learning in response inhibition, a domain particularly affected by cognitive aging. Our findings highlight the need of focusing dementia prevention efforts on groups that are more vulnerable to cognitive decline. Additionally, more individualized approaches, including utilizing technology-assisted learning, might enable participants to practice at their performance level, increasing the likelihood of discernible cognitive gains.

Clinical trial registration

https://drks.de/search/en, identifier DRKS00016552.

A Novel Method of Teaching English to People with Mild Cognitive Impairment Using Songs: A Randomized Controlled Trial Protocol

BACKGROUND

People with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) need to prevent the further decline of their cognitive functions, and one way to do so is by learning a foreign language.

OBJECTIVE

This study describes the development of a protocol for a novel, non-pharmacological intervention for people with MCI that seeks to prevent or reduce cognitive decline by teaching English through songs.

METHODS

The development of this protocol follows a mixed-methodology approach, consisting of three stages: 1) development of the protocol of the intervention, 2) a randomized controlled trial study with two arms over six months that includes an intervention group and a control group, and 3) the evaluation of the protocol by trainers. In the second stage, we recruited a total of 128 people with MCI from the five participating countries of this study (Greece, Spain, Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy). This educational program will assess three main outcomes after 6 months of the English Lessons with the Use of Songs for People with Mild Cognitive Impairment (E.L.So.M.C.I.) workshops.

RESULTS

Our primary outcome will hopefully be an improvement in general cognition in the intervention group compared to the control group from baseline to 6 months follow-up. Secondary outcomes include a decrease in participants' anxiety and depression and an improvement in their quality of life. Development of English language skills is the last outcome.

A Systematic Review of Emergent Learning Outcomes Produced by Foreign language Tact Training

This systematic review evaluated the effects of foreign tact training on emergent learning outcomes in ten published studies. We also conducted a meta-analysis of aggregate data from seven studies comparing outcomes of foreign tact training with other verbal operant procedures. The preliminary findings indicated foreign tact training produced criterion-level responses in 84 of 106 (79.2%) post-test probes across 37 learners and 55 evaluations of foreign tact training. The meta-analysis results revealed significantly higher within-subjects mean levels of emergent responding following foreign tact training than foreign-to-native intraverbal, native-to-foreign intraverbal, and foreign listener training. Emergent outcomes for adults were not significantly greater than for children. Finally, foreign tact training was slightly more efficient than the other verbal operant procedures, although most of the differences were not statistically significant.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40616-022-00170-z.

Foreign Language Learning in Older Adults: Anatomical and Cognitive Markers of Vocabulary Learning Success

In recent years, foreign language learning (FLL) has been proposed as a possible cognitive intervention for older adults. However, the brain network and cognitive functions underlying FLL has remained largely unconfirmed in older adults. In particular, older and younger adults have markedly different cognitive profile—while older adults tend to exhibit decline in most cognitive domains, their semantic memory usually remains intact. As such, older adults may engage the semantic functions to a larger extent than the other cognitive functions traditionally considered the most important (e.g., working memory capacity and phonological awareness). Using anatomical measurements and a cognitive test battery, the present study examined this hypothesis in twenty cognitively normal older adults (58–69 years old), who participated in a two-month Italian learning programme. Results showed that the immediate learning success and long-term retention of Italian vocabularies were most consistently predicted by the anatomical measures of the left pars orbitalis and left caudal middle frontal cortex, which are implicated in semantic and episodic memory functions. Convergent evidence was also found based on the pattern of cognitive associations. Our results are consistent with a prominent role of semantic and episodic memory functions in vocabulary learning in older learners.

Global and localized network characteristics of the resting brain predict and adapt to foreign language learning in older adults

Resting brain (rs) activity has been shown to be a reliable predictor of the level of foreign language (L2) proficiency younger adults can achieve in a given time-period. Since rs properties change over the lifespan, we investigated whether L2 attainment in older adults (aged 64-74 years) is also predicted by individual differences in rs activity, and to what extent rs activity itself changes as a function of L2 proficiency. To assess how neuronal assemblies communicate at specific frequencies to facilitate L2 development, we examined localized and global measures (Minimum Spanning Trees) of connectivity. Results showed that central organization within the beta band (~ 13-29.5 Hz) predicted measures of L2 complexity, fluency and accuracy, with the latter additionally predicted by a left-lateralized centro-parietal beta network. In contrast, reduced connectivity in a right-lateralized alpha (~ 7.5-12.5 Hz) network predicted development of L2 complexity. As accuracy improved, so did central organization in beta, whereas fluency improvements were reflected in localized changes within an interhemispheric beta network. Our findings highlight the importance of global and localized network efficiency and the role of beta oscillations for L2 learning and suggest plasticity even in the ageing brain. We interpret the findings against the background of networks identified in socio-cognitive processes.

The Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire: Psychometric Properties and Relationships With Memory Function in an Iranian Elderly Sample

This study aimed to validate the Persian version of the Lifetime of Experiences Questionnaire (LEQ) and examine the relationship between life experience and memory function. To this end, two studies were conducted. Study one examined the factor structure, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Persian version of LEQ with 247 healthy elderly individuals (M age = 70.17, SD = 4.42; 55.9% women). The exploratory factor analysis yielded a five-factor solution, including Knowledge, Physical, Socialization, Artistic, and Leisure dimensions, which accounted for 42.42% of the explained variance. The internal consistency of the LEQ was in the acceptable range (α = 0.703). Also, the LEQ and its subscales (except the Artistic subscale) had a negative relationship with geriatric depression and a positive relationship with a healthy lifestyle, supporting the measure's convergent and discriminant validity. In the second study, we examined the relationship between LEQ (total and subscales score) and memory function using Pearson correlation and moderating analysis with 149 participants (M age = 70.37, SD = 4.29; 55.03% women). The results demonstrated that the LEQ total and subscales scores correlated positively with episodic memory. In the same vein, LEQ total score and Knowledge subscale showed a positive correlation with semantic memory. The results of moderation analysis showed that LEQ subscales have a different role in memory decline. The knowledge subscale as a content component moderates the effect of age on semantic memory (B = 0.005, t = 2.021, p = 0.045), while the mid-life non-specific activities, which are based on life stages, moderate the effect of age on episodic memory (B = 0.007, t = 3.348, p = 0.001). In conclusion, our results indicated that the Persian version of the LEQ is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring experiences and activities throughout life, which can be used in professional clinical and research settings in the aging context with Iranian elderly samples. Furthermore, our findings suggest that various life experiences can be considered cognitive reserves in old age.

Language immersion and language training: Two paths to enhanced language regulation and cognitive control

When bilinguals switch languages they regulate the more dominant language to enable spoken production in the less dominant language. How do they engage cognitive control to accomplish regulation? We examined this issue by comparing the consequences of training on language switching in two different contexts. Chinese-English bilinguals were immersed in English (L2) while studying abroad (this study) or in Chinese (L1) in their native language environment (Zhang et al., 2015). In each study, participants performed the AX-CPT task while EEG was recorded and were then trained on language switching. While Zhang et al. found that training enhanced proactive control in the L1 context, there were no effects of training under L2 immersion conditions. Critically, L2 immersed bilinguals revealed enhanced proactive control at pre-test and greater L1 inhibition on language switching relative to L1 immersed bilinguals. We hypothesize that L2 immersion creates a natural training context that increases reliance on proactive control to enable regulation of the L1.

Does Second Language Learning Promote Neuroplasticity in Aging? A Systematic Review of Cognitive and Neuroimaging Studies

As the population ages, understanding how to maintain older adults' cognitive abilities is essential. Bilingualism has been linked to higher cognitive reserve, better performance in executive control, changes in brain structure and function relative to monolinguals, and delay in dementia onset. Learning a second language thus seems a promising avenue for cognitive enhancement in older adults. Our review aims to determine whether learning a foreign language in later life improves cognition and promotes neuroplasticity. We screened articles from the Pubmed, Scopus, and Science Direct databases to identify interventional studies using second language training in senior participants, including either cognition or neuroimaging as outcome measures. A total of nine articles were found, with only one neuroimaging study. Results from these studies are inconsistent, but tend to suggest that second language learning is associated with improvement in attentional switching, inhibition, working memory, and increased functional connectivity. We discuss the implications of these results, and suggest new directions and methodological recommendations for future research.

Foreign Language Training to Stimulate Cognitive Functions

Adult development throughout a lifetime implies a series of changes in systems, including cognitive and linguistic functioning. The aim of this article is to study the effect of foreign language training on linguistic processing, particularly the frequency of the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon and on other cognitive processes such as processing speed and working memory in adults aged 40 to 60 years. Sixty-six healthy Colombian teachers were enrolled in this study. They were then randomly divided into an experimental group (33 healthy adults who underwent a four-week training period) and a passive control group (33 healthy adults who did not undergo any training). All participants performed induction tasks for the TOT phenomenon, working memory and processing speed before and after the four weeks. Results showed more of an effect in the semantic access, phonological access and processing speed measures with a better performance in the experimental group than in the control group. In Colombia, this type of training is still new and little is known to date about programs to prevent cognitive impairments. The need to conduct more studies confirming or refuting these findings is discussed, thus raising awareness about the extent of this type of training to increase the linguistic and cognitive performance of adults.

Bilingualism as a protective factor in aphasia

BACKGROUND

Bilingualism may affect the profile of cognitive disturbances associated with stroke. Its impact on aphasia severity, however, is in need of substantiation.

AIMS

To determine the relationship between bilingualism and vascular aphasia severity.

METHODS

This is an observational cross-sectional study conducted on people with post-stroke aphasia. Our sample included 155 monolingual and 53 bilingual vascular aphasia patients. They were selected in a neurological hospital in Kolkata (West Bengal, India).

RESULTS

The Bengali version of Western Aphasia Battery (BWAB) was used in this study. Aphasia severity was compared between monolingual and bilingual participants. The overall difference in the mean aphasia quotient (AQ) between bilingual and monolingual participants was statistically significant (p = 0.009). It was also found that in bilingual participants, aphasia was less severe in certain subgroups, namely: higher lesion volume, male gender, and sub-cortical stroke, while in none of the subgroups a monolingual advantage was documented.

CONCLUSION

Current results suggest that bilingualism represents a protective factor in vascular aphasia; this effect is observed particularly in some aphasia subgroups.

Can inhibition deficit hypothesis account for age-related differences in semantic fluency? Converging evidence from Stroop color and word test and an ERP flanker task

The inhibition deficit hypothesis (IDH) proposed that individual differences in inhibitory control is an underlying reason for age-related language decline. This study examined whether the hypothesis holds within the domain of lexico-semantic retrieval. Sixty-six older adults aged 60-79 were tested in a semantic fluency task comprising 16 categories; each response was classified as automatic or controlled. Also, Stroop color and word test and an ERP flanker task were employed to yield both behavioral and neural measures of inhibitory control. Mixed-effects modelling revealed that the number of controlled (but not automatic) responses was negatively associated with age. This interaction could be partially accounted for by the behavioral Stroop inhibition score and two neural measures from the ERP flanker task (P2 and Pc amplitudes). These results not only provide converging evidence supporting the IDH, but also demonstrate the involvement of specific inhibitory control components, including attentional control and performance monitoring.

Second Language Learning in Older Adults: Effects on Brain Structure and Predictors of Learning Success

It has previously been demonstrated that short-term foreign language learning can lead to structural brain changes in younger adults. Experience-dependent brain plasticity is known to be possible also in older age, but the specific effect of foreign language learning on brain structure in language-and memory-relevant regions in the old brain remains unknown. In the present study, 160 older Swedish adults (65–75 years) were randomized to complete either an entry-level Italian course or a relaxation course, both with a total duration of 11 weeks. Structural MRI scans were conducted before and after the intervention in a subset of participants to test for differential change in gray matter in the two groups in the inferior frontal gyrus, the superior temporal gyrus, and the hippocampus, and in white matter microstructure in the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), fronto-occipital fasciculus, and the hippocampal (HC) section of the cingulum. The study found no evidence for differential structural change following language training, independent of achieved vocabulary proficiency. However, hippocampal volume and associative memory ability before the intervention were found to be robust predictors of vocabulary proficiency at the end of the language course. The results suggest that having greater hippocampal volume and better associative memory ability benefits vocabulary learning in old age but that the very initial stage of foreign language learning does not trigger detectable changes in brain morphometry in old age.

Foreign Language Learning as Cognitive Training to Prevent Old Age Disorders? Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Language Training vs. Musical Training and Social Interaction in Elderly With Subjective Cognitive Decline

Introduction: With aging comes a reduction of cognitive flexibility, which has been related to the development of late-life depression and progression of general cognitive decline. Several factors have been linked to attenuating such decline in cognitive flexibility, such as education, physical exercise and stimulating leisure activities. Speaking two or more languages has recently received abundant attention as another factor that may build up cognitive reserve, thereby limiting the functional implications of compromised cognition that accompany old age. With the number of older adults reaching record levels, it is important to attenuate the development of old-age disorders. Learning to speak a foreign language might offer a powerful tool in promoting healthy aging, but up to date effect studies are sparse. Here, the protocol that forms the foundation of the current study is presented. The present study aims to: (1) examine the effects of a foreign language training on cognitive flexibility and its neural underpinnings, and on mental health; and (2) assess the unique role of foreign language training vs. other cognitive or social programs. Method: One-hundred and ninety-eight Dutch elderly participants reporting subjective cognitive decline are included and randomized to either a language intervention, a music intervention, or a social control intervention. During 3 to 6 months, the language group learns English, the music group learns to play the guitar and the social group participates in social meetings where art workshops are offered. At baseline, at a 3-month follow-up, and at 6 months after termination of the training program, clinical, cognitive and brain activity measurements (combined EEG and fNIRS methods) are taken to assess cognitive flexibility and mental health. Discussion: This is the first trial addressing combined effects of language learning in elderly on cognition, language proficiency, socio-affective measures, and brain activity in the context of a randomized controlled trial. If successful, this study can provide insights into how foreign language training can contribute to more cognitively and mentally healthy years in older adulthood. Clinical Trial Registration: The trial is registered at the Netherlands Trial Register, July 2, 2018, trial number NL7137. https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/7137.

Comparison of Activation in the Prefrontal Cortex of Native Speakers of Mandarin by Ability of Japanese as a Second Language Using a Novel Speaking Task

Evidence shows that second language (L2) learning affects cognitive function. Here in this work, we compared brain activation in native speakers of Mandarin (L1) who speak Japanese (L2) between and within two groups (high and low L2 ability) to determine the effect of L2 ability in L1 and L2 speaking tasks, and to map brain regions involved in both tasks. The brain activation during task performance was determined using prefrontal cortex blood flow as a proxy, measured by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). People with low L2 ability showed much more brain activation when speaking L2 than when speaking L1. People with high L2 ability showed high-level brain activation when speaking either L2 or L1. Almost the same high-level brain activation was observed in both ability groups when speaking L2. The high level of activation in people with high L2 ability when speaking either L2 or L1 suggested strong inhibition of the non-spoken language. A wider area of brain activation in people with low compared with high L2 ability when speaking L2 is considered to be attributed to the cognitive load involved in code-switching L1 to L2 with strong inhibition of L1 and the cognitive load involved in using L2.

Are There Any Cognitive Benefits of Computer-Based Foreign Language Training for Healthy Elderly People? - A Mini-Review

The purpose of this mini-review is to investigate if there are any cognitive benefits of computer-based foreign language training for healthy older individuals aged 55+ years. The author conducted a literature search of peer-reviewed English written research articles found in Pub Med, Web of Science and Scopus. The findings of this mini-review reveal that the research on the cognitive benefits of computer-based foreign language training for healthy older individuals is small-scale. The limited research findings of only three relevant studies indicate that these computer-based foreign language training programs may bring cognitive benefits for healthy elderly people, especially as far as the enhancement of their cognitive functions such as working memory are concerned. In addition, the authors of these studies suggest that foreign language learning is a useful activity for healthy older adults since it has the benefits of being meaningful (an advantage over other cognitive training approaches) and provides the chance for acquiring important skills that can benefit other aspects of life, such as travel or communication. In conclusion, the author of this mini-review also provides several implications for practice and future research.

Lifelong Bilingualism Functions as an Alternative Intervention for Cognitive Reserve Against Alzheimer's Disease

Bilingualism has been reported to significantly delay the onset of dementia and plays an important role in the management of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a condition inducing impairment in the brain network and cognitive decline. Cognitive reserve is associated with the adaptive maintenance of neural functions by protecting against neuropathology. Bilingualism acts as a beneficial environmental factor contributing to cognitive reserve, although some potential confounding variables still need further elucidation. In this article, the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive reserve is discussed, interpreting the advantage of bilingualism in protecting against cognitive decline. In addition, the possible brain and biochemical mechanisms, supporting the advantageous effects of bilingualism in delaying the onset of dementia, involved in bilingualism are reviewed. Effectively, bilingualism can be considered as a pharmacological intervention with no side effects. However, the investigation of the pharmacological parameters of bilingualism is still at an early stage.

Aging and non-native speech perception: A phonetic training study

Cognitive decline is evident in the elderly and it affects speech perception and foreign language learning. A listen-and-repeat training with a challenging speech sound contrast was earlier found to be effective in young monolingual adults and even in advanced L2 university students at the attentive and pre-attentive levels. This study investigates foreign language speech perception in the elderly with the same protocol used with the young adults. Training effects were measured with attentive behavioural measures (N = 9) and with electroencephalography measuring the pre-attentive mismatch negativity (MMN) response (N = 10). Training was effective in identification, but not in discrimination and there were no changes in the MMN. The most attention demanding perceptual functions which benefit from experience-based linguistic knowledge were facilitated through training, whereas pre-attentive processing was unaffected. The elderly would probably benefit from different training types compared to younger adults.

Exploring Language Learning as a Potential Tool against Cognitive Impairment in Late-Life Depression: Two Meta-Analyses and Suggestions for Future Research

Late-life depression (LLD) affects about an eighth of community-dwelling seniors. LLD impacts well-being, with loneliness and small social networks being typical. It has also been linked to cognitive dysfunction and an increased risk of developing dementia. Safety and efficacy of pharmacological treatments for LLD have been debated, and cognitive dysfunction often persists even after remission. Various cognitive interventions have been proposed for LLD. Among these, one has received special attention: foreign language learning could serve as a social intervention that simultaneously targets brain structures affected in LLD. Lifelong bilingualism may significantly delay the onset of cognitive impairment symptoms by boosting cognitive reserve. Even late-life foreign language learning without lifelong bilingualism can train cognitive flexibility. It is then counterintuitive that the effects of language learning on LLD have never been examined. In order to create a theoretical basis for further interdisciplinary research, this paper presents a status quo of current work through two meta-analyses investigating cognitive functioning in LLD on the one hand and in senior bilinguals or seniors following a language course on the other hand. While LLD was consistently associated with cognitive dysfunction, inconsistent results were found for bilingualism and language learners. Possible reasons for this and suggestions for future research are subsequently discussed.

Enhancing Cognitive Performance of Healthy Czech Seniors through Non-Native Language Learning-A Mixed-Methods Pilot Study

The aim of this article is to discuss the effect of learning a non-native language on the enhancement of cognitive performance in healthy native Czech elderly. In addition, special emphasis is put on the qualitative assessment. To do this, 42 Czech cognitively unimpaired seniors were enrolled into the study. These were then divided into an experimental group (i.e., 20 healthy elderly studied English as a non-native language for three months) and a passive control group (22 healthy elderly, who did not undergo any non-native language intervention). The main outcome measures included the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, statistical processing of the data, and a qualitative content analysis. The results indicate that the cognitive performance of the intervention group did not differ from the control group. Therefore, no cognitive enhancement through non-native language learning was achieved. However, the findings of the qualitative analysis show that such non-native language learning with the peers of the same age is especially beneficial for the overall well-being of healthy seniors, especially as far as their social networks are concerned. Furthermore, participant's subjective feelings from their self-reports indicate that foreign language learning also contributes to acquiring new English words and phrases. However, as there are very few empirical studies on this research topic, further research is needed in order to confirm or refute the present research findings on the enhancement of cognitive performance through non-native language learning in healthy seniors.

Current Research on the Impact of Foreign Language Learning Among Healthy Seniors on Their Cognitive Functions From a Positive Psychology Perspective-A Systematic Review

The purpose of this review study is to explore the existing research focusing on the impact of foreign language learning among healthy seniors on their cognitive functions from the positive psychology perspective. The methods are based on a literature review of available sources found on the research topic in two acknowledged databases: Web of Science and Scopus. The search period was not limited by any time period since there are not many studies on this topic. Altogether seven original studies were detected. The findings of this review study thus reveal that foreign language learning (FLL) has a positive impact on the maintenance and/or enhancement of cognitive abilities irrespective of age. In addition, the FLL courses seem to offer new opportunities for healthy seniors in the area of socializing and integration into society, which consequently may positively affect their overall well-being. Furthermore, the research shows that it is partly through the stimulation of social well-being that the cognitive effects of FLL might be observed. Cognitive aspects of older age are to be further investigated, including the importance of learning a foreign language, as basically all research conducted proves at least some maintenance or even improvement of cognitive functions of older people when starting intensive language training.

Home health care services to persons with dementia and language preference

Despite the rapid increase in the number of persons with dementia (PWD) receiving home health care (HHC), little is known of HHC services patterns to PWD of varied backgrounds, including language preference other than English. Analyzing data of 12,043 PWD from an urban home health agency, we found on average PWD received 2.48 skilled visits or 1.88-hour skilled care and 5.81 aide visits or 24.13-hour aide care weekly. Approximately 63% of the skilled visits were from nurses. More non-English preferred PWD received aide visits, compared to English preferred PWD (44% vs. 36%). The type and intensity of HHC services were associated with language preference; when stratified by insurance, non-English preference was still significantly associated with more HHC aide care. Our study indicated that HHC services (both type and amount) varied by language preference and insurance type as an indicator of access disparities was a significant contributor to the observed differences.

Impact of Learning a Foreign Language on the Enhancement of Cognitive Functions Among Healthy Older Population

The purpose of this article is to discuss to what extent foreign language learning may enhance cognitive functions among healthy older population. The methods used in this study included cognitive assessments using standardized tests, intervention through English language teaching and learning, and statistical analysis. Out of 60 older Czech citizens, 42 cognitively unimpaired participants were selected for the experiment. These participants were randomly divided into an experimental group (20 subjects) studying English for 12 weeks (three 45-min lessons per week) and a control group (22 subjects) whose members did not have any language training. The results of the research show that there has been a slight enhancement of cognitive skills in the experimental group. Nevertheless, on the whole, the scores of the experimental and control groups did not considerably differ. Despite this fact, the results indicate that cognitive functions among healthy older population can be maintained through regular foreign language training.

Bilingualism for Dementia: Neurological Mechanisms Associated With Functional and Structural Changes in the Brain

As the number of older adults increases, the prevalence of dementias, such as Alzheimer's dementia (AD), vascular dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies, and frontotemporal dementias, also increases. Despite research into pharmacological approaches for treating diverse diseases, there is still no cure. Recently, novel non-pharmacological interventions are attracting attention. Non-pharmacological approaches include cognitive stimulation, alterations in diet, physical activity, and social engagement. Cognitive stimulating activities protect against the negative effects of cognitive decline caused by age-related neurogenerative diseases. Bilingualism is one form of cognitive stimulation that requires multiple aspects of brain activity and has been shown to delay the onset of dementia symptoms in patients by approximately 4-5 years as compared with monolingual patients through cognitive reserve. The purpose of this review was to bilingualism protects against cognitive decline associated with AD and other dementias. We discuss potential underlying neurological mechanisms, including: (1) stimulating adult neurogenesis, (2) enhancing synaptogenesis, (3) strengthening functional connectivity that bilingualism may delay clinical AD symptoms, (4) protecting white matter integrity, and (5) preserving gray matter density.

Language Training Leads to Global Cognitive Improvement in Older Adults: A Preliminary Study

Purpose We report a preliminary study that prospectively tests the potential cognitive enhancing effect of foreign language (FL) learning in older adults with no clear signs of cognitive decline beyond what is age typical. Because language learning engages a large brain network that overlaps with the network of cognitive aging, we hypothesized that learning a new language later in life would be beneficial. Method Older adults were randomly assigned to 3 training groups: FL, games, and music appreciation. All were trained predominately by a computer-based program for 6 months, and their cognitive abilities were tested before, immediately after, and 3 months after training. Results FL and games, but not music appreciation, improved overall cognitive abilities that were maintained at 3 months after training. Conclusion This is the 1st randomized control study providing preliminary support for the cognitive benefits of FL learning.

Effects of Second Language Learning on the Plastic Aging Brain: Functional Connectivity, Cognitive Decline, and Reorganization

Learning a new language requires the use of extensive neural networks and can represent a powerful tool to reorganize brain neuroplasticity. In this study, we analyze how a 4 months long second language learning program (16, 2 h sessions) can lead to functional changes in the brain of healthy elderly individuals. A large number of studies point out a decline of brain-skills with age; here it is analyzed how cognition together with functional brain organization can be improved later in life. Twenty-six older adults (59-79 years old) were enrolled in the present study. A complete neuropsychological examination was administered before and after the intervention to measure global cognition levels, short- and long-term memory, attention, language access and executive functions. At the end of the program, in the intervention group, the results showed a significant improvement in global cognition together with an increased functional connectivity in the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), right superior frontal gyrus (rSFG) and left superior parietal lobule (lSPL). These findings can be added to the current neurobiological breakthroughs of reshaping brain networks with a short language learning practice in healthy elderly subjects. Therefore, learning a foreign-language may represent a potentially helpful cognitive intervention for promoting healthy aging.

An Active Lifestyle Reinforces the Effect of a Healthy Diet on Cognitive Function: A Population-Based Longitudinal Study

The joint effect of diet and leisure activity on cognitive function remains unknown. We aimed to verify the hypothesis that an active lifestyle reinforces the effect of the Nordic Prudent Dietary Pattern (NPDP) on cognitive function. A total of 2223 dementia-free Swedish adults aged ≥60 with Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores ≥27 were followed for an average of 6 years. MMSE was tested during follow-ups. Diet was assessed by food frequency questionnaire. The NPDP index was calculated and tertiled (low, moderate, and high adherence). Participation in physical, mental and social activities was trichotomised (low, moderate, and intense). An active lifestyle was defined based on the participation in each activity. Data were analyzed using mixed-effects models. Moderate-to-high adherence to NPDP was associated with a reduced decline in the MMSE score (β: 0.19, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.14–0.24). This association became stronger when combined with moderate-to-intense physical (β: 0.34, 95% CI: 0.2–0.45), mental (β: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.21–0.37), or social (β: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.19–0.34) activities. An active lifestyle strengthened the effect of NPDP on cognitive function by two times, and further lowered risk of MMSE decline by 30%. Thus, an active lifestyle reinforces the effect of a healthy diet on preserved cognitive function, and further decreases the risk of cognitive decline.

Learning a Foreign Language: A Review on Recent Findings About Its Effect on the Enhancement of Cognitive Functions Among Healthy Older Individuals

Currently, there is an increasing number of older population groups, especially in developed countries. This demographic trend, however, may cause serious problems, such as an increase in aging diseases, one of which is dementia whose main symptom consists in the decline of cognitive functioning. Although there has been ongoing pharmacological research on this neurological disorder, it has not brought satisfying results as far as its treatment is concerned. Therefore, governments all over the world are trying to develop alternative, non-pharmacological strategies/activities, which could help to prevent this cognitive decline while this aging population is still healthy in order to reduce future economic and social burden. One of the non-pharmacological approaches, which may enhance cognitive abilities and protect against the decline in healthy older population, seems to be the learning of a foreign language. The purpose of this mini-review article is to discuss recent findings about the effect of foreign language learning on the enhancement of cognitive functions among healthy older individuals. The findings, divided into three research areas, show that the learning of a foreign language may generate a lot of benefits for older individuals, such as enhancement of cognitive functioning, their self-esteem, increased opportunities of socializing, or reduction of costs. However, as Ware et al. (2017) indicate, any intervention program on foreign language learning should be well thought of and tailored to the needs of older people in order to be effective and avoid accompanying factors, such as older people’s anxiety or low self-confidence. Nevertheless, more empirical studies should be done in this area.

Becoming a balanced, proficient bilingual: Predictions from age of acquisition & genetic background

Genetic variants related to dopamine functioning (e.g., the ANKK1/TaqIa polymorphism within the DRD2 gene and the Val158Met polymorphism within the COMT gene) have previously been shown to predict cognitive flexibility and learning (e.g., Colzato et al., 2010; Stelzel et al., 2010). Additionally, researchers have found that these genetic variants may also predict second language learning (Mamiya et al., 2016), although this relationship may change across the lifespan (Sugiura et al., 2011). The current study examined the role of the ANKK1/TaqIa and Val158Met polymorphisms along with age of second language acquisition (AoA) in order to predict levels of bilingual proficiency in Spanish-English bilinguals. Results indicated a three-way interaction such that the relationship between the genetic variants and bilingual proficiency depended on AoA. At earlier AoAs, having the genetic variant associated with higher levels of subcortical dopamine (A1+) predicted the highest levels of bilingual proficiency. At later AoAs, individuals with the genetic variant associated with cortical dopamine levels that are balanced between stability and flexibility (Val/Met) predicted the highest levels of bilingual proficiency. These results fit with theories about the development of language as a subcortical process early in life and as a cortical process later in life (Hernandez & Li, 2007), as well as the importance of both stability and flexibility in bilingual language development (Green & Abutalebi, 2013). Finally, this study raises questions about the direction of causality between bilingualism and cognitive control, which is central to the debate over the "bilingual advantage."

Uncovering the Mechanisms Responsible for Why Language Learning May Promote Healthy Cognitive Aging

One of the great challenges facing humankind in the 21st century is preserving healthy brain function in our aging population. Individuals over 60 are the fastest growing age group in the world, and by 2050, it is estimated that the number of people over the age of 60 will triple. The typical aging process involves cognitive decline related to brain atrophy, especially in frontal brain areas and regions that subserve declarative memory, loss of synaptic connections, and the emergence of neuropathological symptoms associated with dementia. The disease-state of this age-related cognitive decline is Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, which may cause older adults to lose their independence and rely on others to live safely, burdening family members and health care systems in the process. However, there are two lines of research that offer hope to those seeking to promote healthy cognitive aging. First, it has been observed that lifestyle variables such as cognitive leisure activities can moderate the risk of Alzheimer's disease, which has led to the development of plasticity-based interventions for older adults designed to protect against the adverse effects of cognitive decline. Second, there is evidence that lifelong bilingualism acts as a safeguard in preserving healthy brain function, possibly delaying the incidence of dementia by several years. In previous work, we have suggested that foreign language learning programs aimed at older populations are an optimal solution for building cognitive reserve because language learning engages an extensive brain network that is known to overlap with the regions negatively affected by the aging process. Here, we will outline potential future lines of research that may uncover the mechanism responsible for the emergence of language learning related brain advantages, such as language typology, bi- vs. multi-lingualism, age of acquisition, and the elements that are likely to result in the largest gains.

Bilingualism as a strategy to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease

The purpose of this study is to explore original studies which provide evidence about the effects of bilingualism on the delay of the onset of dementia, specifically Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A literature review was conducted in the world’s acknowledged databases: Web of Science, Scopus, and MEDLINE. Altogether, 14 original studies focusing on the research topic were detected. These included six prospective cohort studies and eight retrospective studies. Both types of studies suggest different conclusions. The findings from the prospective cohort studies state that there is no association between bilingualism and the delay of the onset of AD, while the retrospective studies claim the opposite. Despite the negative results of the prospective cohort studies, more research should be conducted on bilingualism and its impact on the delay of the onset of AD, since the brain studies have brought positive findings as far as the enhancement of cognitive reserve is concerned.

The Benefits of Multilingualism to the Personal and Professional Development of Residents of The US

In the past two decades, new research on multilingualism has changed our understanding of the consequences of learning and using two or more languages for cognition, for the brain, and for success and well-being across the entire lifespan. Far from the stereotype that exposure to multiple languages in infancy complicates language and cognitive development, the new findings suggest that individuals benefit from that exposure, with greater openness to other languages and to new learning itself. At the other end of the lifespan, in old age, the active use of two or more languages appears to provide protection against cognitive decline. That protection is seen in healthy aging and most dramatically in compensating for the symptoms of pathology in those who develop dementia or are recovering from stroke. In this article we briefly review the most exciting of these new research developments and consider their implications.