Why has butyrylcholinesterase been retained? Structural and functional diversification in a duplicated gene

Emerging significance of butyrylcholinesterase

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE; EC 3.1.1.8), an enzyme structurally related to acetylcholinesterase, is widely distributed in the human body. It plays a role in the detoxification of chemicals such as succinylcholine, a muscle relaxant used in anesthetic practice. BChE is well-known due to variant forms of the enzyme with little or no hydrolytic activity which exist in some endogamous communities and result in prolonged apnea following the administration of succinylcholine. Its other functions include the ability to hydrolyze acetylcholine, the cholinergic neurotransmitter in the brain, when its primary hydrolytic enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, is absent. To assess its potential roles, BChE was studied in relation to insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, cognition, hepatic disorders, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and inflammatory conditions. Individuals who lack the enzyme activity of BChE are otherwise healthy, until they are given drugs hydrolyzed by this enzyme. Therefore, BChE is a candidate for the study of loss-of-function mutations in humans. Studying individuals with variant forms of BChE can provide insights into whether they are protected against metabolic diseases. The potential utility of the enzyme as a biomarker for Alzheimer's disease and the response to its drug treatment can also be assessed.

Perioperative point-of-care-testing of plasmacholinesterases identifies older patients at risk for postoperative delirium: an observational prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Postoperative delirium (POD) is a severe perioperative complication that may increase mortality and length-of-stay in older patients. Moreover, POD is a major economic burden to any healthcare system. An altered expression of Acetylcholine- and Butyrylcholinesterases (AChE, BuChE) due to an unbalanced neuroinflammatory response to trauma or an operative stimulus has been reported to play an essential role in the development of POD. We investigated if perioperative measurement of cholinesterases (ChEs) can help identifying patients at risk for the occurrence of POD in both, scheduled and emergency surgery patients.

METHODS

This monocentric prospective observational cohort study was performed in a tertiary hospital (departments of orthopaedic surgery and traumatology). One hundred and fifty-one patients aged above 75 years were enrolled for scheduled (n = 76) or trauma-related surgery (n = 75). Exclusion criteria were diagnosed dementia and anticholinergic medication. Plasma samples taken pre- and postoperatively were analysed regarding AChE and BuChE activity. Furthermore, perioperative assessment using different cognitive tests was performed. The type of anaesthesia (general vs. spinal anaesthesia) was analysed. Primary outcome was the incidence of POD assessed by the approved Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) in combination with the expression of AChE and BuChE.

RESULTS

Of 151 patients included, 38 (25.2%) suffered from POD; 11 (14%) in scheduled and 27 (36%) in emergency patients. AChE levels showed no difference throughout groups or time course. Trauma patients had lower BuChE levels prior to surgery than scheduled patients (p < 0.001). Decline in BuChE levels correlated positively with the incidence of POD (1669 vs. 1175 U/l; p < 0.001). Emergency patients with BuChE levels below 1556 U/L were at highest risk for POD. There were no differences regarding length of stay between groups or incidence of POD. The type of anaesthesia had no influence regarding the incidence of POD. Only Charlson Comorbidity Index and Mini Nutrition Assessment demonstrated reliable strength in respect of POD.

CONCLUSIONS

Perioperative measurement of BuChE activity can be used as a tool to identify patients at risk of POD. As a point-of-care test, quick results may alter the patients' course prior to the development of POD.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00017178 .

Profiling Novel Quinuclidine-Based Derivatives as Potential Anticholinesterase Drugs: Enzyme Inhibition and Effects on Cell Viability

The cholinergic system, relying on the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), plays a significant role in muscle contraction, cognition, and autonomic nervous system regulation. The enzymes acetylcholinesterase, AChE, and butyrylcholinesterase, BChE, responsible for hydrolyzing ACh, can fine-tune the cholinergic system's activity and are, therefore, excellent pharmacological targets to address a range of medical conditions. We designed, synthesized, and profiled 14 N-alkyl quaternary quinuclidines as inhibitors of human AChE and BChE and analyzed their impact on cell viability to assess their safety in the context of application as potential therapeutics. Our results showed that all of the 14 tested quinuclidines inhibited both AChE and BChE in the micromolar range (Ki = 0.26 - 156.2 μM). The highest inhibition potency was observed for two bisquaternary derivatives, 7 (1,1'-(decano)bis(3-hydroxyquinuclidinium bromide)) and 14 (1,1'-(decano)bis(3-hydroxyiminoquinuclidinium bromide)). The cytotoxic effect within 7-200 μM was observed only for monoquaternary quinuclidine derivatives, especially those with the C12-C16 alkyl chain. Further analysis revealed a time-independent mechanism of action, significant LDH release, and a decrease in the cells' mitochondrial membrane potential. Taking all results into consideration, we can confirm that a quinuclidine core presents a good scaffold for cholinesterase binding and that two bisquaternary quinuclidine derivatives could be considered as candidates worth further investigations as drugs acting in the cholinergic system. On the other hand, specific cell-related effects probably triggered by the free long alkyl chain in monoquaternary quinuclidine derivatives should not be neglected in future N-alkyl quaternary quinuclidine derivative structure refinements. Such an effect and their potential to interact with other specific targets, as indicated by a pharmacophore model, open up a new perspective for future investigations of these compounds' scaffold in the treatment of specific conditions and diseases other than cholinergic system-linked disorders.

Real-time visualization of butyrylcholinesterase activity using a highly selective and sensitive chemiluminescent probe

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), one of the critical human cholinesterases, plays crucial roles in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Accordingly, it is a striking and at the same time challenging target for bioimaging studies. Herein, we developed the first ever example of a 1,2-dixoetane-based chemiluminescent probe (BCC) for monitoring BChE activity in native biological contexts such as living cells and animals. BCC was initially shown to exhibit a highly selective and sensitive turn-on response in its luminescence signal upon reacting with BChE in aqueous solutions. Later, BCC was utilized to image endogenous BChE activity in normal and cancer cell lines. It was also shown through inhibition experiments that BChE can detect fluctuations of BChE levels successfully. In vivo imaging ability of BCC was demonstrated in healthy and tumor-bearing mice models. BCC enabled us to visualize the BChE activity in different regions of the body. Furthermore, it was successfully employed to monitor tumors derived from neuroblastoma cells with a very high signal to noise ratio. Thus, BCC appears as a highly promising chemiluminescent probe, which can be used to further understand the contribution of BChE to regular cellular processes and the formation of diseased states.

Exploring the hub genes and mechanisms of Daphne altaica treating esophageal squamous cell carcinoma based on network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis

PURPOSE

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), is a frequent digestive tract malignant carcinoma with a high fatality rate. Daphne altaica (D. altaica), a medicinal plant that is frequently employed in Kazakh traditional medicine, and which has traditionally been used to cure cancer and respiratory conditions, but research on the mechanism is lacking. Therefore, we examined and verified the hub genes and mechanism of D. altaica treating ESCC.

METHODS

Active compounds and targets of D. altaica were screened by databases such as TCMSP, and ESCC targets were screened by databases such as GeneCards and constructed the compound-target network and PPI network. Meantime, data sets between tissues and adjacent non-cancerous tissues from GEO database (GSE100942, GPL570) were analyzed to obtain DEGs using the limma package in R. Hub genes were validated using data from the Kaplan-Meier plotter database, TIMER2.0 and GEPIA2 databases. Finally, AutoDock software was used to predict the binding sites through molecular docking.

RESULTS

In total, 830 compound targets were obtained from TCMSP and other databases. In addition, 17,710 disease targets were acquired based on GeneCards and other databases. In addition, we constructed the compound-target network and PPI network. Then, 127 DEGs were observed (82 up-regulated and 45 down-regulated genes). Hub genes were screened including TOP2A, NUF2, CDKN2A, BCHE, and NEK2, and had been validated with the help of several publicly available databases. Finally, molecular docking results showed more stable binding between five hub genes and active compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study, five hub genes were screened and validated, and potential mechanisms of action were predicted, which could provide a theoretical understanding of the treatment of ESCC with D. altaica.

Organophosphorus Poisoning: Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) and Cardiac Failure as Cause of Death in Hospitalized Patients

Industrial production of food for animals and humans needs increasing amounts of pesticides, especially of organophosphates, which are now easily available worldwide. More than 3 million cases of acute severe poisoning are estimated to occur worldwide every year, and even more cases remain unreported, while 200,000–350,000 incidentally or intentionally poisoned people die every year. Diagnostic and therapeutic procedures in organophosphate poisoning have, however, remained unchanged. In addition to several neurologic symptoms (miosis, fasciculations), hypersecretion of salivary, bronchial, and sweat glands, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of urine rapidly induce dehydration, hypovolemia, loss of conscience and respiratory distress. Within hours, signs of acidosis due to systemic hypoxia can be observed at first laboratory investigation after hospitalization. While determination of serum-cholinesterase does not have any diagnostic value, it has been established that hypoalbuminemia alone or accompanied by an increase in creatinine, lactate, or C-reactive protein serum levels has negative prognostic value. Increased serum levels of C-reactive protein are a sign of systemic ischemia. Protective mechanical ventilation should be avoided, if possible. In fact, acute respiratory distress syndrome characterized by congestion and increased weight of the lung, accompanied by heart failure, may become the cause of death. As the excess of acetylcholine at the neuronal level can persist for weeks until enough newly, locally synthesized acetylcholinesterase becomes available (the value of oximes in reducing this time is still under debate), after atropine administration, intravenous albumin and fluid infusion should be the first therapeutic interventions to reestablish normal blood volume and normal tissue oxygenation, avoiding death by cardiac arrest.

Toxic effects of polyethylene microplastics on transcriptional changes, biochemical response, and oxidative stress in common carp (Cyprinus carpio)

Aquatic ecosystems have become a place for accumulating microplastics (MPs). MPs can directly or indirectly damage organisms. Although studies of the toxicity of MPs, there are insufficient literature reports on the effects of MPs on freshwater aquatic life. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of MPs toxicity on Cyprinus carpio. In this study, biochemical parameters, oxidative biomarkers, and gene expression were assayed in fish exposed to 0, 175, 350, 700, and 1400 μg L^-1 of MPs for 30 days. MPs were detected in the liver and intestine of fish using FTIR-analysis. Mt1, Ces2, and P450 mRNA expression were enhanced in the hepatocytes of fish exposed to MPs, while Mt2 gene expression was significantly decreased. After exposure to MPs, MDA and carbonyl protein levels were higher than those of the reference group. The antioxidant capacity and glycogen contents in the hepatocytes significantly declined. MPs significantly inhibited glutathione reductase (GR), glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), and catalase (CAT) activities. However, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities increased. MPs decreased the total protein, globulin levels, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity in blood. In contrast, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activities increased in treated-fish with MPs. Glucose, creatinine, cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations in fish exposed to MPs were significantly higher than that of the reference group. Consequently, MPs exposure could disrupt biochemical homeostasis, oxidative stress and alter the expression of genes involved in detoxification.

Cholinesterase Deficiency Syndrome-A Pitfall in the Use of Butyrylcholinesterase as a Biomarker for Wilson's Disease

A family is described as having two recessively inherited metabolic diseases and three differently affected children. During the explantation of a drain tube grommet under general anesthesia, a prolonged resuscitation and wake-up period occurred in the key case when he was 8 years old. This led to a family screening for butyrylcholinesterase deficiency, which was confirmed not only in the key case but also in his 5-year-old sister; it was not confirmed in his 10-year-old brother. However, the key case not only had reduced serum levels of BCHE, but also elevated liver enzyme levels, which are atypical for BCHE deficiency. After the exclusion of viral and autoimmune hepatitis, Wilson’s disease (WD) was eventually diagnosed and also confirmed in his elder brother, but not in his sister. This family is presented to highlight an extremely rare WD-patient in whom a low serum level of BCHE did not occur because of WD but because of BCHE deficiency.

Kinetics and computational study of butyrylcholinesterase inhibition by methylrosmarinate: relevance to Alzheimer's disease treatment

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) performs a significant function in Alzheimer’s disease progression. Experimental studies have shown that the function of BChE in the attenuation of cholinergic neurotransmission is essentially altered in brains of advanced AD patients. Here, using the complimentary methods of enzyme kinetic studies, molecular modeling and protein-ligand interaction profiling, we sought to reveal the mechanistic and structural features of BChE-methyrosmarinate interactions. Molecular docking simulations revealed that methylrosmarinate dwelled well in the active centre of BChE, where it got involved in stabilizing non-covalent associations with myriad subsites. Enzyme kinetic experiments showed that the V_m and K_s values were 156.20 ± 3.11 U mg⁻¹ protein and 0.13 ± 0.01 μM, respectively. The inhibition studies showed that methylrosmarinate apparently inhibited BChE in a linear mixed manner, with an IC₅₀ value of 10.31 μM and a K_i value of 3.73 ± 1.52 μM. Taken together, the extremely reduced K_i value and the increased number of BChE–methylrosmarinate interactions presuppose that methylrosmarinate is a good inhibitor of BChE, despite the fact that the mechanism for the effect of BChE inhibition on several pathological conditions in vivo remains unexplored.

Butyrylcholinesterase distribution in the mouse gastrointestinal tract: An immunohistochemical study

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is a hydrolytic enzyme that together with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) belongs to the cholinesterase family. Whereas AChE has a well-established role in regulating cholinergic neurotransmission in central and peripheral synapses, the physiological role of BChE remains elusive. In this morphological immunohistochemical and double-label confocal microscopy study we investigated the distribution of BChE in the mouse gastrointestinal tract. BChE-positive cells were detected in the liver (both in hepatocytes and cholangiocytes), in the keratinised layers of the squamous epithelium of the oesophagus and forestomach, in the oxyntic mucosa of the stomach, in the mucus-secreting cells of duodenal Brunner glands and the small and large intestinal mucosa. Interestingly, BChE-positive cells were often detected close to gastrointestinal proliferative niches. In the oxyntic mucosa, the close proximity of ghrelin-producing and BChE-positive parietal cells suggests that BChE may be involved in ghrelin hydrolysation through paracrine action. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive morphological study performed to gain insight into the physiological role of BChE in the gastrointestinal tract.

Selecting Genetic Variants and Interactions Associated with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Group LASSO Approach

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a multi-system neurodegenerative disease that affects both upper and lower motor neurons, resulting from a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Usually, the association between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and this disease is tested individually, which leads to the testing of multiple hypotheses. In addition, this classical approach does not support the detection of interaction-dependent SNPs. We applied a two-step procedure to select SNPs and pairwise interactions associated with ALS. SNP data from 276 ALS patients and 268 controls were analyzed by a two-step group LASSO in 2000 iterations. In the first step, we fitted a group LASSO model to a bootstrap sample and a random subset of predictors (25%) from the original data set aiming to screen for important SNPs and, in the second step, we fitted a hierarchical group LASSO model to evaluate pairwise interactions. An in silico analysis was performed on a set of variables, which were prioritized according to their bootstrap selection frequency. We identified seven SNPs (rs16984239, rs10459680, rs1436918, rs1037666, rs4552942, rs10773543, and rs2241493) and two pairwise interactions (rs16984239:rs2118657 and rs16984239:rs3172469) potentially involved in nervous system conservation and function. These results may contribute to the understanding of ALS pathogenesis, its diagnosis, and therapeutic strategy improvement.

An integrated biomarker approach: Non-monotonic responses to cadmium exposure in the suckermouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus

Environmental risk assessment in aquatic ecosystems typically uses biomarkers to detect interactions between potential hazards and biological systems. Next to knowing environmental contaminant levels in tissues and the environment, it is important to link to potentially deleterious effects at higher levels of biological organization such as biochemistry, physiology, and overall health status. In this laboratory study we assessed the toxicity of waterborne cadmium (Cd) over an exposure range of 0 - 100 µg l^-1 for nine days to the loricariid suckermouth catfish Hypostomus plecostomus. We evaluated the integrated response of the fish at the biochemical to physiological level by means of a suite of tissue biomarkers of exposure and effects, including Cd concentrations in gills, liver metallothioneins (MT) and cholinesterase activity (ChE) in brain, before and after the inhibition of the alkaloid eserine, as well as whole-fish resting oxygen consumption rates and ingestion rate. Tissue biomarkers (MT and ChE) showed a non-monotonic relationship, with maximum/minimum responses at intermediate doses. i.e. 10 and 50 µg l^-1, whereas biomarker responses of fish exposed at 100 µg l^-1 more closely resembled biomarker responses seen at lower concentrations (< 10 µg l^-1). Conversely, the oxygen consumption rate peaked at 100 µg l^-1, suggesting a higher metabolic cost for higher metal exposure, with no significant correlation with fish body condition and food intake. Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR) values peaked at the intermediate exposure concentration of 50 µg l^-1 Cd. The non-monotonic dose-response of the biochemical biomarkers of exposure, together with the higher metabolic rates of fish exposed to 50 - 100 µg l^-1 of Cd and the non-significant effects on the more relevant physiological and histological variables suggests that H. plecostomus is capable of biochemically and physiologically regulating moderately high Cd concentrations, thus representing a suitable indicator organism to monitor metal pollution by Cd.

Butyrylcholinesterase is a potential biomarker for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Background

Autonomic dysfunction has been implicated in the pathophysiology of the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is an enzyme of the cholinergic system, a major branch of the autonomic system, and may provide a measure of autonomic (dys)function. This study was undertaken to evaluate BChE activity in infants and young children who had died from Sudden Infant Death or Sudden Unexpected Death.

Methods

In this case-control study we measured BChE activity and total protein in the eluate of 5μL spots punched from the dried blood spots taken at birth as part of the newborn screening program. Results for each of 67 sudden unexpected deaths classified by the coroner (aged 1 week-104 weeks) = Cases, were compared to 10 date of birth - and gender-matched surviving controls (Controls), with five cases reclassified to meet criteria for SIDS, including the criterion of age 3 weeks to 1 year.

Findings

Conditional logistic regression showed that in groups where cases were reported as “SIDS death” there was strong evidence that lower BChE specific activity (BChEsa) was associated with death (OR=0·73 per U/mg, 95% CI 0·60-0·89, P=0·0014), whereas in groups with a “Non-SIDS death” as the case there was no evidence of a linear association between BChEsa and death (OR=1·001 per U/mg, 95% CI 0·89-1·13, P=0·99).

Interpretation

BChEsa, measured in dried blood spots taken 2-3 days after birth, was lower in babies who subsequently died of SIDS compared to surviving controls and other Non-SIDS deaths. We conclude that a previously unidentified cholinergic deficit, identifiable by abnormal -BChEsa, is present at birth in SIDS babies and represents a measurable, specific vulnerability prior to their death.

Funding

All funding provided by a crowd funding campaign https://www.mycause.com.au/p/184401/damiens-legacy

Neuroprotective Effects of Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Current Scenario in Therapies for Alzheimer’s Disease and Future Perspectives

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disease conceptualized as a continuous process, ranging from mild cognitive impairment (MCI), to the mild, moderate, and severe clinical stages of AD dementia. AD is considered a complex multifactorial disease. Currently, the use of cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI), such as tacrine, donepezil, rivastigmine, and galantamine, has been the main treatment for AD patients. Interestingly, there is evidence that ChEI also promotes neuroprotective effects, bringing some benefits to AD patients. The mechanisms by which the ChEI act have been investigated in AD. ChEI can modulate the PI3K/AKT pathway, which is an important signaling cascade that is capable of causing a significant functional impact on neurons by activating cell survival pathways to promote neuroprotective effects. However, there is still a huge challenge in the field of neuroprotection, but in the context of unravelling the details of the PI3K/AKT pathway, a new scenario has emerged for the development of more efficient drugs that act on multiple protein targets. Thus, the mechanisms by which ChEI can promote neuroprotective effects and prospects for the development of new drug candidates for the treatment of AD are discussed in this review.

Long-Chain Acylcholines Link Butyrylcholinesterase to Regulation of Non-neuronal Cholinergic Signaling

Acylcholines are comprised of an acyl chain esterified to a choline moiety; acetylcholine is the best-characterized member of this class, functioning as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems as well as an inhibitor of cytokine production by macrophages and other innate immune cells. Acylcholines are metabolized by a class of cholinesterases, including acetylcholinesterase (a specific regulator of acetylcholine levels) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE, an enigmatic enzyme whose function has not been resolved by genetic knockout models). BChE provides reserve capacity to hydrolyze acetylcholine, but its importance is arguable given acetylcholinesterase is the most catalytically efficient enzyme characterized to date. While known to be substrates of BChE in vitro, endogenous production of long-chain acylcholines is a recent discovery enabled by untargeted metabolomics. Compared to acetylcholine, long-chain acylcholines show greater stability in circulation with homeostatic levels-dictated by synthesis and clearance-suggested to impact cholinergic receptor sensitivity of acetylcholine with varying levels of antagonism. Acylcholines then provide a link between BChE and non-neuronal acetylcholine signaling, filling a gap in understanding around how imbalances between acylcholines and BChE could modulate inflammatory disease, such as the "cytokine storm" identified in severe COVID-19. Areas for further research, development, and clinical testing are outlined.

Butyrylcholinesterase-Protein Interactions in Human Serum

Measuring various biochemical and cellular components in the blood is a routine procedure in clinical practice. Human serum contains hundreds of diverse proteins secreted from all cells and tissues in healthy and diseased states. Moreover, some serum proteins have specific strong interactions with other blood components, but most interactions are probably weak and transient. One of the serum proteins is butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), an enzyme existing mainly as a glycosylated soluble tetramer that plays an important role in the metabolism of many drugs. Our results suggest that BChE interacts with plasma proteins and forms much larger complexes than predicted from the molecular weight of the BChE tetramer. To investigate and isolate such complexes, we developed a two-step strategy to find specific protein–protein interactions by combining native size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with affinity chromatography with the resin that specifically binds BChE. Second, to confirm protein complexes′ specificity, we fractionated blood serum proteins by density gradient ultracentrifugation followed by co-immunoprecipitation with anti-BChE monoclonal antibodies. The proteins coisolated in complexes with BChE were identified by mass spectroscopy. These binding studies revealed that BChE interacts with a number of proteins in the human serum. Some of these interactions seem to be more stable than transient. BChE copurification with ApoA-I and the density of some fractions containing BChE corresponding to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) during ultracentrifugation suggest its interactions with HDL. Moreover, we observed lower BChE plasma activity in individuals with severely reduced HDL levels (≤20 mg/dL). The presented two-step methodology for determination of the BChE interactions can facilitate further analysis of such complexes, especially from the brain tissue, where BChE could be involved in the pathogenesis and progression of AD.

Genetic Association of Butyrylcholinesterase with Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized as clinical depression, which primarily affects the mood and behaviour of an individual. In the present study butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), a co-regulatory cholinergic neurotransmitter enzyme implicated in several putative neuronal and non-neuronal physiological roles was investigated for its role in MDD. Eighty MDD patients and sixty-one healthy controls were recruited for the study. BChE activity was measured by Ellman's method using serum while DNA samples of the patients were genotyped for BCHE polymorphisms rs3495 (c.*189G > A) and rs1803274 (c.1699G > A) by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and tetra-primer Amplification Refractory Mutation System- polymerase chain reaction (ARMS-PCR). The genotyping was further validated by Sanger Sequencing. Biochemical estimation of serum BChE levels revealed a statistically significant decrease of enzyme activity in MDD patients (69.96) as compared to healthy controls (90.97), which was independent of age and gender. BCHE single nucleotide polymorphism rs1803274 genotype GA was found to be associated with the disease under a dominant model (OR 2.32; 95% CI 1.09-4.96; p value = 0.025). Furthermore, risk allele-A frequency was higher in cases (p value = 0.013) than control. Carriers of rs1803274 GA genotype showed reduced mean BChE activity than wild-type allele GG homozygotes (p value = 0.040). Gender-based analysis revealed a protective role of rs3495 in females (χ² = 6.87, p value = 0.032, RM: OR 0.173, CI = 0.043-0.699 (p value = 0.017). In addition, rs1803274 risk allele-A was observed to be significantly higher in males (χ² = 4.258, p value = 0.039). In conclusion, the present study is indicative of a role of BChE in the pathophysiology of MDD where genetic polymorphisms were observed to effect BChE activity. Further replication studies in different ethnicities are recommended to validate the current observations.

"Clicking" fragment leads to novel dual-binding cholinesterase inhibitors

Cholinesterase inhibitors are potent therapeutics in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Among them, dual binding ligands have recently gained a lot of attention. We discovered novel dual-binding cholinesterase inhibitors, using "clickable" fragments, which bind to either catalytic active site (CAS) or peripheral anionic site (PAS) of the enzyme. Copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition allowed to effectively synthesize a series of final heterodimers, and modeling and kinetic studies confirmed their ability to bind to both CAS and PAS. A potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor with IC₅₀ = 18 nM (compound 23g) was discovered. A target-guided approach to link fragments by the enzyme itself was tested using butyrylcholinesterase.

Butyryl-cholinesterase deficiency: A case report of delayed recovery after general anaesthesia

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Suggestive presentation of foreign body aspiration needs emergency bronchoscopy.

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Meticulous history and high index of suspicion is needed to diagnose butyryl-cholinesterase deficiency.

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Succinylcholine apnoea is treated by ventilation and recombinant enzyme could be the specific antidote.

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Genetic testing is needed to confirm the diagnosis of butyryl-cholinesterase deficiency.

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Succinylcholine apnoea patient and their family should be well-informed about the situation.

Background

Apnoea and prolonged paralysis after succinylcholine administration is not uncommon occurrence in anaesthetic practice. It occurs due to inherited or acquired deficiency of butyrylcholinesterase.

Case report

Here we report a case of succinylcholine apnoea for 2 h in a 5 years old girl who was anaesthetized for bronchoscopic extraction of a foreign body. She was subsequently kept on assisted ventilation. She recovered few minutes after I.V. atropine and naloxone. Laboratory investigation revealed low cholinesterase activity. Thus the girl was given 150 mL fresh frozen plasma. She has been discharged the next day after complete recovery.

Conclusion

As the genetic analysis was not available to confirm the diagnosis of atypical variant of cholinesterase. The family was advised to submit serum samples for assessment of cholinesterase activity and avoid exposure to cholinesterase inhibitors. Moreover, clear instructions were given to the family so they can warn the anaesthetists in case any family member undergoes general anesthesia for any reason in the future. Furthermore, they must be strongly advised to avoid exposure to anticholinesterases as they might have heightened sensitivity to these agents. It should be emphasized that Naloxone and atropine could help speed up recovery in such cases.

Longitudinal evaluation of a novel BChE PET tracer as an early in vivo biomarker in the brain of a mouse model for Alzheimer disease

Purpose: The increase in butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity in the brain of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients and animal models of AD position this enzyme as a potential biomarker of the disease. However, the information on the ability of BChE to serve as AD biomarker is contradicting, also due to scarce longitudinal studies of BChE activity abundance. Here, we report ¹¹C-labeling, in vivo stability, biodistribution, and longitudinal study on BChE abundance in the brains of control and 5xFAD (AD model) animals, using a potent BChE selective inhibitor, [¹¹C]4, and positron emission tomography (PET) in combination with computerised tomography (CT). We correlate the results with in vivo amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition, longitudinally assessed by [¹⁸F]florbetaben-PET imaging.

Methods: [¹¹C]4 was radiolabelled through ¹¹C-methylation. Metabolism studies were performed on blood and brain samples of female wild type (WT) mice. Biodistribution studies were performed in female WT mice using dynamic PET-CT imaging. Specific binding was demonstrated by ex vivo and in vivo PET imaging blocking studies in female WT and 5xFAD mice at the age of 7 months. Longitudinal PET imaging of BChE was conducted in female 5xFAD mice at 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 months of age and compared to age-matched control animals. Additionally, Aβ plaque distribution was assessed in the same mice using [¹⁸F]florbetaben at the ages of 2, 5, 7 and 11 months. The results were validated by ex vivo staining of BChE at 4, 8, and 12 months and Aβ at 12 months on brain samples.

Results: [¹¹C]4 was produced in sufficient radiochemical yield and molar activity for the use in PET imaging. Metabolism and biodistribution studies confirmed sufficient stability in vivo, the ability of [¹¹C]4 to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) and rapid washout from the brain. Blocking studies confirmed specificity of the binding. Longitudinal PET studies showed increased levels of BChE in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, striatum, thalamus, cerebellum and brain stem in aged AD mice compared to WT littermates. [¹⁸F]Florbetaben-PET imaging showed similar trend of Aβ plaques accumulation in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus of AD animals as the one observed for BChE at ages 4 to 8 months. Contrarily to the results obtained by ex vivo staining, lower abundance of BChE was observed in vivo at 10 and 12 months than at 8 months of age.

Conclusions: The BChE inhibitor [¹¹C]4 crosses the BBB and is quickly washed out of the brain of WT mice. Comparison between AD and WT mice shows accumulation of the radiotracer in the AD-affected areas of the brain over time during the early disease progression. The results correspond well with Aβ accumulation, suggesting that BChE is a promising early biomarker for incipient AD.

A Comprehensive Review of Cholinesterase Modeling and Simulation

The present article reviews published efforts to study acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase structure and function using computer-based modeling and simulation techniques. Structures and models of both enzymes from various organisms, including rays, mice, and humans, are discussed to highlight key structural similarities in the active site gorges of the two enzymes, such as flexibility, binding site location, and function, as well as differences, such as gorge volume and binding site residue composition. Catalytic studies are also described, with an emphasis on the mechanism of acetylcholine hydrolysis by each enzyme and novel mutants that increase catalytic efficiency. The inhibitory activities of myriad compounds have been computationally assessed, primarily through Monte Carlo-based docking calculations and molecular dynamics simulations. Pharmaceutical compounds examined herein include FDA-approved therapeutics and their derivatives, as well as several other prescription drug derivatives. Cholinesterase interactions with both narcotics and organophosphate compounds are discussed, with the latter focusing primarily on molecular recognition studies of potential therapeutic value and on improving our understanding of the reactivation of cholinesterases that are bound to toxins. This review also explores the inhibitory properties of several other organic and biological moieties, as well as advancements in virtual screening methodologies with respect to these enzymes.

Phenotype and genotype characteristics of 58 patients showing a prolonged effect of succinylcholine: A four-year experience

INTRODUCTION

This study sought to describe the phenotype and genotype characteristics of patients referred to our laboratory to undergo further assessment due to a suspicion of a prolonged effect of suxamethonium attributed to BChE deficiency.

METHODS

All patients referred to our laboratory from January 2016 to December 2019 due to the suspicion of a prolonged effect of suxamethonium were included in this study. The determination of BChE activity and genotyping using complete nucleotide sequencing of the entire complementary DNA-coding region with flanking intron-exon boundaries were completed.

RESULTS

During this four-year period, 58 patients were referred to our laboratory for the investigation of prolonged neuromuscular block due to BChE deficiency. Among them, 52 showed a BChE deficiency related to BCHE gene mutations. The most commonly detected genotype was compound homozygous atypical variant (p.Asp98Gly)/homozygous Kalow variant (p.Ala569Thr) (p.[Asp98Gly;Ala567Thr];[p.Asp98Gly;Ala567Thr]). Further, we recorded four new BCHE variants, which seem to be associated with prolonged post suxamethonium apnoea: p.(Trp205Cys), p.(Leu222His), p.(Glu469Gln), and p.(Lys276Ter).

CONCLUSION

During a four-year period, among the 58 patients referred to our laboratory, we have found four new BCHE variants, which seem to be associated with prolonged post suxamethonium apnoea (p.(Trp205Cys), p.(Leu22His), p.(Glu469Gln), and p.(Lys276Ter)).

The Role of Butyrylcholinesterase and Iron in the Regulation of Cholinergic Network and Cognitive Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia in elderly individuals, is marked by progressive neuron loss. Despite more than 100 years of research on AD, there is still no treatment to cure or prevent the disease. High levels of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain are neuropathological hallmarks of AD. However, based on postmortem analyses, up to 44% of individuals have been shown to have high Aβ deposits with no clinical signs, due to having a “cognitive reserve”. The biochemical mechanism explaining the prevention of cognitive impairment in the presence of Aβ plaques is still unknown. It seems that in addition to protein aggregation, neuroinflammatory changes associated with aging are present in AD brains that are correlated with a higher level of brain iron and oxidative stress. It has been shown that iron accumulates around amyloid plaques in AD mouse models and postmortem brain tissues of AD patients. Iron is required for essential brain functions, including oxidative metabolism, myelination, and neurotransmitter synthesis. However, an imbalance in brain iron homeostasis caused by aging underlies many neurodegenerative diseases. It has been proposed that high iron levels trigger an avalanche of events that push the progress of the disease, accelerating cognitive decline. Patients with increased amyloid plaques and iron are highly likely to develop dementia. Our observations indicate that the butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) level seems to be iron-dependent, and reports show that BChE produced by reactive astrocytes can make cognitive functions worse by accelerating the decay of acetylcholine in aging brains. Why, even when there is a genetic risk, do symptoms of the disease appear after many years? Here, we discuss the relationship between genetic factors, age-dependent iron tissue accumulation, and inflammation, focusing on AD.

Novel arylcarbamate-N-acylhydrazones derivatives as promising BuChE inhibitors: Design, synthesis, molecular modeling and biological evaluation

A novel series of arylcarbamate-N-acylhydrazones derivatives have been designed and synthesized as potential anti-cholinesterase agents. In vitro studies revealed that these compounds demonstrated selective for butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) with potent inhibitory activity. The compounds 10a-d, 12b and 12d were the most potent BuChE inhibitors with IC₅₀ values of 0.07-2.07 µM, highlighting the compound 10c (IC₅₀ = 0.07 µM) which showed inhibitory activity 50 times greater than the reference drug donepezil (IC₅₀ = 3.54 µM). The activity data indicates that the position of the carbamate group in the aromatic ring has a greater influence on the inhibitory activity of the derivatives. The enzyme kinetics studies indicate that the compound 10c has a non-competitive inhibition against BuChE with Ki value of 0.097 mM. Molecular modeling studies corroborated the in vitro inhibitory mode of interaction and show that compound 10c is stabilized into hBuChE by strong hydrogen bond interaction with Tyr128, π-π stacking interaction with Trp82 and CH⋯O interactions with His438, Gly121 and Glu197. Based on these data, compound10cwas identified as low-cost promising candidate for a drug prototype for AD treatment.

Cryo-electron microscopy of cholinesterases, present and future

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) exist in a variety of oligomeric forms, each with defined cellular and subcellular distributions. Although crystal structures of AChE and BChE have been available for many years, structures of the physiologically relevant ChE tetramer were only recently solved by cryo‐electron microscopy (cryo‐EM) single‐particle analysis. Here, we briefly review how these structures contribute to our understanding of cholinesterase oligomerization, highlighting the advantages of using cryo‐EM to resolve structures of protein assemblies that cannot be expressed recombinantly. We argue that the next frontier in cholinesterase structural biology is to image membrane‐anchored ChE oligomers directly in their native environment—the cell.

Structure and therapeutic uses of butyrylcholinesterase: Application in detoxification, Alzheimer's disease, and fat metabolism

Structural information of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and its variants associated with several diseases are discussed here. Pure human BChE has been proved safe and effective in treating organophosphorus (OPs) poisoning and has completed Phase 1 and 2 pharmacokinetic (PK) and safety studies. The introduction of specific mutations into native BChE to endow it a self-reactivating property has gained much progress in producing effective OPs hydrolases. The hydrolysis ability of native BChE on cocaine has been confirmed but was blocked to clinical application due to poor PK properties. Several BChE mutants with elevated cocaine hydrolysis activity were published, some of which have shown safety and efficiency in treating cocaine addiction of human. The increased level of BChE in progressed Alzheimer's disease patients made it a promising target to elevate acetylcholine level and attenuate cognitive status. A variety of selective BChE inhibitors with high inhibitory activity published in recent years are reviewed here. BChE could influence the weight and insulin secretion and resistance of BChE knockout (KO) mice through hydrolyzing ghrelin. The BChE-ghrelin pathway could also regulate aggressive behaviors of BChE-KO mice.

An Overview on the Mechanisms and Applications of Enzyme Inhibition-Based Methods for Determination of Organophosphate and Carbamate Pesticides

Acetylcholinesterase inactivating compounds, such as organophosphate (OP) and carbamate (CM) pesticides, are widely used in agriculture to ensure sustainable production of food and feed. As a consequence of their applications, they would result in neurotoxicity, even death. In this essence, the development of enzyme inhibition methods still shows great significance as rapid detection techniques for on-site large-scale screening of OPs and CMs. Initially, mechanisms and applications of various enzyme-inhibition-based methods and devices, including optical colorimetric assay, fluorometric assays, electrochemical biosensors, rapid test card, and microfluidic device, are highlighted in the present overview. Further, to enhance the enzyme sensitivity for detection; alternative enzyme sources or high yield enrichment methods (such as abzyme, artificial enzyme, and recombinant enzyme), as well as enzyme reactivation and identification, are also addressed in this comprehensive overview.

Butyrylcholinesterase Protein Ends in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease-Could BCHE Genotyping Be Helpful in Alzheimer's Therapy?

Late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is clinically characterized by a progressive decline of memory and other cognitive functions leading to the loss of the ability to perform everyday activities. Only a few drugs have been approved to treat AD dementia over the past century since the first AD patient was diagnosed. Drugs increasing the availability of neurotransmitters at synapses in the brain are used clinically in the treatment of AD dementia, and cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) are the mainstay of the therapy. A detrimental effect on cognitive function has been reported in patients with pharmacological inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) by ChEIs and reduced butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity due to the single nucleotide polymorphisms. The BChE K-variant (rs1803274), the most common genetic variant of the BCHE gene, was thought to reduce enzyme activity reflecting the lower clinical response to rivastigmine in AD patients. During ChEIs therapy, patients carrying reduced-activity BChE do not present such improved attention like patients with the wild-type enzyme. On the other hand, alterations in the BCHE gene causing enzyme activity reduction may delay AD onset in patients at risk by preserving the level of cortical acetylcholine (ACh). Based on our previous results, we conclude that SNPs localized outside of the coding sequence, in 5’UTR (rs1126680) and/or intron 2 (rs55781031) of the BCHE gene, but not solely K-variant alteration (p.A539T) itself, are responsible for reduced enzyme activity. Therefore, we suspect that not BChE-K itself, but these coexisting SNPs (rs1126680 and rs55781031), could be associated with deleterious changes in cognitive decline in patients treated with ChEIs. Based on the results, we suggest that SNPs (rs1126680) and/or (rs55781031) genotyping should be performed to identify subjects at risk for lowered efficacy ChEIs therapy, and such patients should be treated with a lower rivastigmine dosage. Finally, our sequence analysis of the N-terminal end of N-BChE revealed evolutionarily conserved amino acid residues that can be involved in disulfide bond formation and anchoring of N-BChE in the cell membrane.

Comparative study of esterase activities in different tissues of marine fish species Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus

Pesticides are one of the most frequently anthropogenic xenobiotics detected in water. Among these, the organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are very widely used in agriculture due to their broad spectrum of activity and their low price, but they also have high potent effects as neurotoxic compounds in non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate biomarkers acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), propionylcholinesterase (PChE) and carboxylesterase (CbE) in the representative Atlantic fish species Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus from "Rías Gallegas", a traditional Spanish fishing area. These esterase activities were evaluated in the brain, muscle and liver to determine the most adequate tissue to measure such enzymatic activities. The sensitivity of AChE and CbE activities from different tissues the widely used organophosphorus insecticide chlorpyrifos (CP), and its toxic metabolite (CP-oxon) was also tested. AChE activity was predominant in all tissues of the analysed species (particularly in brain constituting from 78.33%, 89.83% and 88.43% of total ChEs in Trachurus trachurus, Merluccius merluccius and Trisopterus luscus, respectively). Under in vitro exposure, esterases were shown to be highly sensitive to CP and especially to CP-oxon. Moreover, a similar effect observed on AChE and CbE activities could suggest that CbE activity might contribute efficiently against the toxic effects of CP, especially in muscle and the liver. The presence of BChE, PChE and upper CbE activities in muscle and the liver and their OP-sensibilities can be used to study their function in the pesticide biochemical detoxification pathways with a prominent role as a safeguarding mechanism against pesticide toxicity.

Haplotypes of butyrylcholinesterase K-variant and their influence on the enzyme activity

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is a serine hydrolase widely distributed throughout the body. It provides protection against administrated or inhaled poisons by hydrolyzing or sequestering the toxic compounds. The most frequent genetic variant of BCHE gene - K variant (p.A539T) is located in the C-terminal tetramerization domain, outside of the catalytic center. Many studies tried to reveal the nature of the lower activity of BChE K-variant but results and conclusions were often contradictory. The aim of this study is to estimate K allele frequency and its coexisting alterations in BCHE gene in a population of 162 individuals, as well as, assess influence on the enzyme activity in serum. We present three haplotypes of BChE-K variant, two of them coexist in strong linkage disequilibrium with alterations in 5'UTR (rs1126680), intron 2 (rs55781031) or in exon 2 (rs1799807). We demonstrate a negative role of these alterations on enzyme activity. By oneself BCHE-K (with no other alterations in BCHE gene) haplotype exhibits wild type enzyme activity. Based on our previous and presented results we conclude that SNPs localized outside the coding sequence, in 5'UTR or/and in intron 2 of BCHE gene, but not solely in K-variant alteration (p.A539T) itself, are responsible for reduced enzyme activity.

Synergy between the alteration in the N-terminal region of butyrylcholinesterase K variant and apolipoprotein E4 in late-onset Alzheimer's disease

While the life expectancy of the population has increased, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has emerged as one of the greatest health problems of old age. AD is characterized by neuronal loss and cognitive decline. In the AD brain, there is a decrease in levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and an increase in the levels of the related enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), that accumulate in plaques and tangles. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a major cholesterol carrier and plays an important role in maintaining lipid homeostasis. APOE-ε4 constitutes the most important known genetic risk factor for late-onset AD. It has been proposed that the BCHE-K allele (Ala539Thr) acts in synergy with the APOE-ε4 allele to promote risk for AD. However, there is insufficient evidence to support a correlation. Most studies focused only on the coding regions of the genes. In this study, we analyzed sequence regions beyond the BCHE coding sequence. We found synergy between APOE-ε4 and SNPs localized in 5′UTR (rs1126680) and in intron 2 (rs55781031) of the BCHE-K allele (rs1803274) in 18% of patients with late-onset AD (n = 55). The results show that the coexistence of the APOE-ε4 allele and 3 SNPs in the BCHE gene is associated with a highly elevated risk of late-onset AD. SNP (rs1126680) in 5′UTR of the BCHE gene is located 32 nucleotides upstream of the 28 amino acid signal peptide. Mass spectrometry analysis of the BChE protein produced by SNP (rs1126680) showed that the mutation caused an in frame N-terminal extension of 41 amino acids of the BChE signal peptide. The resultant variant with a 69 amino acid signal peptide, designated N-BChE, may play a role in development of AD.

New insights into the interaction between mammalian butyrylcholinesterase and amitriptyline: a combined experimental and computational approach

Background

Today, there is a growing recognition in the scientific community of the many roles of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in both physiological and pathological contexts.

Objective

Here, we aim at providing an accurate and comprehensive understanding of the mechanistic and structural aspects of mammalian BChE inhibition by the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline (AMI).

Materials and methods

The present work involves enzyme kinetic studies as well as protein–ligand docking and interaction profiling studies.

Results

We verify that AMI acts as an effective, mixed-type inhibitor of mammalian BChE, with an IC50 value of 10 μM and a Ki value of 2.25 μM. We also provide evidence showing that AMI penetrates deep into the active-site gorge of BChE where it interacts noncovalently with both the choline-binding and catalytic residues.

Conclusion

These findings could facilitate the prevention of the adverse metabolic sequelae of acquired BChE deficiency and also the design of new reversible anticholinesterase drugs.

Cryo-EM structure of the native butyrylcholinesterase tetramer reveals a dimer of dimers stabilized by a superhelical assembly

The quaternary structures of the cholinesterases, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), are essential for their localization and function. Of practical importance, BChE is a promising therapeutic candidate for intoxication by organophosphate nerve agents and insecticides, and for detoxification of addictive substances. Efficacy of the recombinant enzyme hinges on its having a long circulatory half-life; this, in turn, depends strongly on its ability to tetramerize. Here, we used cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) to determine the structure of the highly glycosylated native BChE tetramer purified from human plasma at 5.7 Å. Our structure reveals that the BChE tetramer is organized as a staggered dimer of dimers. Tetramerization is mediated by assembly of the C-terminal tryptophan amphiphilic tetramerization (WAT) helices from each subunit as a superhelical assembly around a central lamellipodin-derived oligopeptide with a proline-rich attachment domain (PRAD) sequence that adopts a polyproline II helical conformation and runs antiparallel. The catalytic domains within a dimer are asymmetrically linked to the WAT/PRAD. In the resulting arrangement, the tetramerization domain is largely shielded by the catalytic domains, which may contribute to the stability of the human BChE (HuBChE) tetramer. Our cryo-EM structure reveals the basis for assembly of the native tetramers and has implications for the therapeutic applications of HuBChE. This mode of tetramerization is seen only in the cholinesterases but may provide a promising template for designing other proteins with improved circulatory residence times.

Association between early serum cholinesterase activity and 30-day mortality in sepsis-3 patients: A retrospective cohort study

Low serum cholinesterase (SCHE) activity has been associated with poor prognoses in a variety of conditions, including sepsis. However, such an association has not been well characterized since the Third International Consensus Definitions Task Force modified the definition of sepsis to "life-threatening organ dysfunction due to a dysregulated host response to infection" (known as sepsis-3) in 2016. In the current retrospective cohort study, we examined whether 30-day mortality in sepsis-3 patients is associated with SCHE activity. A total of 166 sepsis-3 patients receiving treatment at an emergency intensive care unit (EICU) were included. The 30-day death rate was 33.1% (55/166). SCHE activity upon EICU admission was lower in nonsurvivors (3.3 vs. 4.5 KU/L in survivors, p = 0.0002). Subjects with low SCHE activity (defined as <4 KU/L) had higher 30-day mortality rates than subjects with normal SCHE activity (45.5%, 40/88 vs. 19.2%, 15/78; p<0.001). A multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed an association between 30-day mortality and lower SCHE activity after adjustments for relevant factors, such as acute multiple organ dysfunction. The odds ratio (OR) for every unit decrease in SCHE activity was 2.11 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.37-3.27; p = 0.0008). The area under the curve (AUC) of SCHE activity for predicting 30-day mortality was 0.67 (95% CI 0.59-0.74), and the AUC of lactate for predicting 30-day mortality was 0.64 (95% CI 0.57-0.70). Using a combination of SCHE and lactate, the AUC was 0.74 (95% CI 0.69-0.83). These data suggest that lower SCHE activity is an independent risk factor for 30-day mortality in sepsis-3 patients.

Plasma butyrylcholinesterase activity: a possible biomarker for differential diagnosis between Alzheimer's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies?

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is an enzyme encoded by BCHE gene, responsible for secondary hydrolysis of the acetylcholine. K and -116A BCHE variants were associated with decrease in plasma BChE activity, and their influence has been investigated in diseases with a cholinergic deficit such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). In order to check the influence of BCHE genetic variants on enzymatic activity, all patients and controls were genotyped for K and -116A variants. We found lower plasma BChE activity in DLB patients compared to elderly controls and to AD independent of the presence of K or -116A variants. Our results suggest that the reduction of total plasma BChE activity is probably associated with a feedback mechanism and provides a future perspective of using this enzyme as a possible plasmatic marker for differential diagnosis between AD and DLB.

Sensitive biomarker responses of the shrimp Palaemonetes argentinus exposed to chlorpyrifos at environmental concentrations: Roles of alpha-tocopherol and metallothioneins

The aim of this study was to evaluate the toxic effects of chlorpyrifos (CPF) at environmental concentrations on the shrimp Palaemonetes argentinus, a South American native species. Organisms were exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of CPF (from 3.5 to 94.5ngCPFL(-1)) at laboratory conditions for 96h. A wide battery of biochemical responses including bioaccumulation, damage and defense biomarkers were measured in cephalothorax and abdomen of shrimp. The concentration of CPF was below the detection limit of the method in both body sectors (8ngCPFg(-1)ww), probably indicating fast biotransformation of the parental compound. Our results showed that CPF exposure inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity from 3.5ngCPFL(-1), a concentration below the suggested Argentinean guidelines for the protection of aquatic biota. Moreover, oxidative stress was evidenced by increased H2O2 content and increased levels of TBARs and carbonyl groups in proteins. The induction of antioxidant enzymes like catalase, glutathione S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase seems not be sufficient to prevent oxidative damages. In addition, the mobilization of α-tocopherol from abdomen to cephalothorax was observed and reported for the first time in non-reproductive condition. Likewise, a strong diminution of metallothioneins occurred in cephalothorax from the lowest CPF concentration while induction occurred from the same treatment in abdomen as an oxidative stress response. Finally, significant correlation between Integrated Biomarker Response values and exposure concentrations suggest the usefulness of P. argentinus as bioindicator of CPF exposure at concentrations as low as environmental ones.

Influence of the Melissa officinalis Leaf Extract on Long-Term Memory in Scopolamine Animal Model with Assessment of Mechanism of Action

Melissa officinalis (MO, English: lemon balm, Lamiaceae), one of the oldest and still most popular aromatic medicinal plants, is used in phytomedicine for the prevention and treatment of nervous disturbances. The aim of our study was to assess the effect of subchronic (28-fold) administration of a 50% ethanol extract of MO leaves (200 mg/kg, p.o.) compared with rosmarinic acid (RA, 10 mg/kg, p.o.) and huperzine A (HU, 0.5 mg/kg, p.o.) on behavioral and cognitive responses in scopolamine-induced rats. The results were linked with acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and beta-secretase (BACE-1) mRNA levels and AChE and BuChE activities in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of rats. In our study, MO and HU, but not RA, showed an improvement in long-term memory. The results were in line with mRNA levels, since MO produced a decrease of AChE mRNA level by 52% in the cortex and caused a strong significant inhibition of BACE1 mRNA transcription (64% in the frontal cortex; 50% in the hippocampus). However, the extract produced only an insignificant inhibition of AChE activity in the frontal cortex. The mechanisms of MO action are probably more complicated, since its role as a modulator of beta-secretase activity should be taken into consideration.

Activity and polymorphisms of butyrylcholinesterase in a Polish population

Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity assay and inhibitor phenotyping can help to identify individuals at risk of prolonged paralysis following the administration of neuromuscular blocking agents, like succinylcholine, pesticides and nerve agents. In this study, the activity of BChE and its sensitivity to inhibition by dibucaine and fluoride was evaluated in 1200 Polish healthy individuals. In addition, molecular analysis of all exons, exon-intron boundaries and the 3'UTR sequence of the BCHE gene was performed in a group of 72 subjects with abnormal BChE activity (<2000 U/L and >5745 U/L) or with DN (Dibucaine Number) or FN (Fluoride-Number) values outside the reference range (DN < 78 and FN < lower than wild type). In a studied group, BChE activity range was similar to those observed in other populations. BChE activity screening allowed to detect UA and UF phenotypes in 26 (2.2%) and 15 (1.2%) individuals, respectively. Observed UA or UF phenotypes were confirmed by direct sequencing and heterozygous c.293A > G or c.1253G > T substitutions were identified in all cases. Nine out of 18 (50%) individuals with BChE activity below 2000 U/L had a mutation in 5'UTR (32G/A), intron 2 (c.1518-121T/C) or exon 4 (c.1699G/A; the K variant mutation). Majority of the individuals with BChE activity ≥6000 U/L were wild type. To summarize, the range of BChE activity in a Polish population is similar to those observed in other countries. We conclude that the BChE phenotyping assay is a reliable method for identification of individuals with the UA and UF genotypes.

Phenolic composition, antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities of ethanol and water extracts of Chenopodium botrys

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the phenolic composition, antioxidant, and enzyme inhibitory activities of ethanol and water extracts of Chenopodium botrys L.

Lathyrus aureus and Lathyrus pratensis: characterization of phytochemical profiles by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and evaluation of their enzyme inhibitory and antioxidant activities

This study suggest that Lathyrus species may be further used in phytopharmaceuticals or food industry applications.

Reduced vagal control of the heart in high-fat diet mice: a potential role of increased butyrylcholinesterase

Suppressed parasympathetic function is commonly present in cardiovascular diseases, aging, obesity, and various other health conditions. Impaired parasympathetic action is known as a detrimental factor and contributes to the adverse outcomes in these conditions. However, the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully addressed. In this study, using high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice as a model, the potential peripheral mechanisms underlying the impaired parasympathetic vagal control of the heart was examined. The HFD induced obesity and metabolic disorder in mice. These obese mice exhibited an attenuated response in heart rate to vagal stimulation, indicating impairment of peripheral parasympathetic activity in the heart. In cholinergic function-related proteins in the atria, protein levels of choline transporter and vesicular acetylcholine transporter were not decreased but increased, and type 2 muscarinic receptors showed a trend toward a reduction in HFD mice atria as compared with regular diet (RD) mice controls. While the protein level of acetylcholinesterase was not different, butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) protein level showed a twofold increase in HFD mice atria as compared with RD mice. Functionally, inhibition of BChE activity partially and significantly improved the attenuated response in heart rate to vagal stimulation in HFD mice. Collectively, these data suggest that increased BChE activity in the atria may contribute to the decreased parasympathetic function in HFD-induced obese mice.