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Takeda H, Nakajima Y, Yamaguchi T, Watanabe I, Miyoshi S, Nagashio K, Sekine H, Motohashi H, Yano H, Tanaka J. The anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effect of a classical hypnotic bromovalerylurea mediated by the activation of NRF2. J Biochem 2023; 174:131-142. [PMID: 37039781 PMCID: PMC10372716 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvad030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1-nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (KEAP1-NRF2) system plays a central role in redox homeostasis and inflammation control. Oxidative stress or electrophilic compounds promote NRF2 stabilization and transcriptional activity by negatively regulating its inhibitor, KEAP1. We have previously reported that bromovalerylurea (BU), originally developed as a hypnotic, exerts anti-inflammatory effects in various inflammatory disease models. However, the molecular mechanism underlying its effect remains uncertain. Herein, we found that by real-time multicolor luciferase assay using stable luciferase red3 (SLR3) and green-emitting emerald luciferase (ELuc), BU potentiates NRF2-dependent transcription in the human hepatoblastoma cell line HepG2 cells, which lasted for more than 60 h. Further analysis revealed that BU promotes NRF2 accumulation and the transcription of its downstream cytoprotective genes in the HepG2 and the murine microglial cell line BV2. Keap1 knockdown did not further enhance NRF2 activity, suggesting that BU upregulates NRF2 by targeting KEAP1. Knockdown of Nfe2l2 in BV2 cells diminished the suppressive effects of BU on the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, like nitric oxide (NO) and its synthase NOS2, indicating the involvement of NRF2 in the anti-inflammatory effects of BU. These data collectively suggest that BU could be repurposed as a novel NRF2 activator to control inflammation and oxidative stress.
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Key Words
- Abbreviations: ARE, antioxidant responsive element; BU, bromovalerylurea; CCL2, C-C motif chemokine 2; DMF, dimethyl fumarate; GCLC, glutamate–cysteine ligase catalytic subunit; GCLM, glutamate–cysteine ligase modifier subunit; GSS, glutathione synthetase; GSH, glutathione; Hmox-1, heme oxygenase-1; IL-1β, interluekin-1β; IL-6, interluekin-6; JAK, Janus kinase; KEAP1, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein; NO, nitric oxide; NOS2, NO synthase 2; NRE, NF-κB responsive element; NQO-1, NAD(P)H quinone dehydrogenase; NRF2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2; TXNRD, thioredoxin–disulfide reductase; ROS, reactive oxygen species
- KEAP1–NRF2
- anti-inflammation
- anti-oxidant oxygen
- bromovalerylurea
- drug action toxins/drugs/xenobiotics
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruna Takeda
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
- Department of Gene Expression Regulation, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, 4-1, Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8575, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Nakajima
- Health and Medical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2 217-14, Hayashi-cho, Takamatsu, Kagawa, 761-0301, Japan
| | - Teruaki Yamaguchi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Itaru Watanabe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Shoko Miyoshi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Kodai Nagashio
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Hiroki Sekine
- Department of Gene Expression Regulation, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, 4-1, Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8575, Japan
| | - Hozumi Motohashi
- Department of Gene Expression Regulation, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, 4-1, Seiryo-cho, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8575, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, 454, Shitsukawa, Toon, Ehime, 791-0295, Japan
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Mohammad HMF, El-Baz AA, Mahmoud OM, Khalil S, Atta R, Imbaby S. Protective effects of evening primrose oil on behavioral activities, nigral microglia and histopathological changes in a rat model of rotenone-induced parkinsonism. J Chem Neuroanat 2023; 127:102206. [PMID: 36464068 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2022.102206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative illness described as damage to dopaminergic neurons. There is increasing evidence that neuroinflammatory activity mediated by microglia is extensively involved in the initiation and development of PD. This study assessed the protective effect of evening primrose oil [EPO] as an anti-inflammatory mediator in rotenone-induced Parkinsonism in rats. Forty-eight adult male albino rats were distributed into four groups. Group I: control. Group II: rotenone [1.5 mg/kg/48 h] was administered subcutaneously to the rats. Groups III and IV: the rats had rotenone plus daily oral [EPO] 5 and 10 mg/kg respectively. After 24 days, motor behaviour was assessed by the open field and rotarod tests. The brain striata were isolated and tested for tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin 6, NF-B [nuclear factor-kappa B], and dopamine levels. The mid-brain tissues were processed for light and electron microscopy examinations, and immunohistochemical staining for tyrosine hydroxylase [TH], and microglia cells' markers: [CD68 and IBA1]. Results revealed that rotenone-treated rats had poor motor function, a significantly increased striatal level of inflammatory markers, markedly shrunken neurons, degeneration, pyknotic neuroglia, neuropil vacuolation, markedly destructed swollen mitochondria with loss of their cristae, and dilated rough endoplasmic reticulum, as well as decreased TH and increased CD68 and IBA1-positive cells. Treatment with EPO ameliorates all the neuropathological changes of rotenone in the rat brain. In conclusion, EPO enhanced the motor performance, reduced the inflammatory marker levels, restored dopamine levels, and ameliorated the neurohistopathological lesions of rats with experimental parkinsonism, suggesting its neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hala M F Mohammad
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt; Central Laboratory, Center of Excellence in Molecular and Cellular Medicine (CEMCM), Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Amani A El-Baz
- Department of Human Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Omayma M Mahmoud
- Department of Human Anatomy and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Sahar Khalil
- Department of Histology and Cell biology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Rasha Atta
- Department of Human Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt; Tissue Culture Unit, Center of Excellence in Molecular and Cellular Medicine (CEMCM), Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Samar Imbaby
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt.
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Bromovalerylurea modulates GABA A receptor-mediated inhibitory neurotransmission while inducing sleep. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 638:176-183. [PMID: 36462491 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.11.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Bromovalerylurea (BU), an acyl urea derivative, was originally developed as a hypnotic/sedative. We recently reported that BU at a dose of 50 mg/kg ameliorates sepsis, Parkinson's disease, and traumatic brain injury in Wistar rat models through its anti-inflammatory actions on microglia and macrophages. However, since BU was developed more than 100 years ago, its hypnotic mechanism and characteristics are poorly understood. Herein, we conducted an electroencephalogram (EEG) study and found that BU, when administered at a dose of more than 125 mg/kg but not at a dose of 50 mg/kg in Wistar rats, significantly increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep duration and dose-dependently decreased rapid eye movement (REM) sleep duration. This characteristic of sleep induced by BU is similar to the effect of compounds such as barbiturate, benzodiazepine, and z-drugs, all of which require γ-aminobutyric acid A receptors (GABAAR) for hypnotic/sedative activity. To investigate whether BU could potentiate GABAAergic neurotransmission, we conducted a whole-cell patch-clamp recording from pyramidal neurons in rat cortical slices to detect spontaneous GABAAR-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). We found that BU dose-dependently prolonged IPSCs. Importantly, the prolonged IPSCs were not attenuated by flumazenil, a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, suggesting that modulation of IPSCs by BU is mediated by different mechanisms from that of benzodiazepine. Taken together, these data elucidate the basic characteristics of the hypnotic effects of BU and suggest that the enhancement of GABAAR-mediated Cl- flux may be a possible mechanism that contributes to its hypnotic/sedative activity.
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Chloride Intracellular Channel Protein 2 Promotes Microglial Invasion: A Link to Microgliosis in the Parkinson's Disease Brain. Brain Sci 2022; 13:brainsci13010055. [PMID: 36672037 PMCID: PMC9857073 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13010055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated microglia potentially cause neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD). Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of PD, but the modulator of microglial release of MMP-9 remains obscure. Given the modulatory effect of chloride intracellular channel protein 2 (CLIC2) on MMPs, we aimed to determine the role of CLIC2 in regulating microglial MMP expression and activation. We found that CLIC2 is expressed in microglia and neurons in rat brain tissue and focused on the function of CLIC2 in primary cultured microglia. Exposure to recombinant CLIC2 protein enhanced microglial invasion activity, and its knockdown abolished this activity. Moreover, increased activation of MMP-9 was confirmed by the addition of the CLIC2 protein, and CLIC2 knockdown eliminated this activation. Additionally, increased expression of CLIC2 was observed in PD-modeled tissue. In conclusion, CLIC2 increases MMP-9 activity in the microglia, which are involved in PD pathogenesis.
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Tada S, Choudhury ME, Kubo M, Ando R, Tanaka J, Nagai M. Zonisamide Ameliorates Microglial Mitochondriopathy in Parkinson’s Disease Models. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12020268. [PMID: 35204031 PMCID: PMC8870529 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12020268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction and exacerbated neuroinflammation are critical factors in the pathogenesis of both familial and non-familial forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). This study aims to understand the possible ameliorative effects of zonisamide on microglial mitochondrial dysfunction in PD. We prepared 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) co-treated mouse models of PD to investigate the effects of zonisamide on mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation in microglial cells. Consequently, we utilised a mouse BV2 cell line that is commonly used for microglial studies to determine whether zonisamide could ameliorate LPS-treated mitochondrial dysfunction in microglia. Flow cytometry assay indicated that zonisamide abolished microglial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in PD models. Extracellular flux assays showed that LPS exposure to BV2 cells at 1 μg/mL drastically reduced the mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR). Zonisamide overcame the inhibitory effects of LPS on mitochondrial OCR. Our present data provide novel evidence on the ameliorative effect of zonisamide against microglial mitochondrial dysfunction and support its clinical use as an antiparkinsonian drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Tada
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (S.T.); (M.K.); (R.A.)
| | - Mohammed E. Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (M.E.C.); (J.T.)
| | - Madoka Kubo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (S.T.); (M.K.); (R.A.)
| | - Rina Ando
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (S.T.); (M.K.); (R.A.)
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (M.E.C.); (J.T.)
| | - Masahiro Nagai
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon 791-0295, Ehime, Japan; (S.T.); (M.K.); (R.A.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-89-960-5095; Fax: +81-89-960-5938
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Cao LL, Guan PP, Zhang SQ, Yang Y, Huang XS, Wang P. Downregulating expression of OPTN elevates neuroinflammation via AIM2 inflammasome- and RIPK1-activating mechanisms in APP/PS1 transgenic mice. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:281. [PMID: 34861878 PMCID: PMC8641240 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02327-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation is thought to be a cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is partly caused by inadequate mitophagy. As a receptor of mitophagy, we aimed to reveal the regulatory roles of optineurin (OPTN) on neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of AD. METHODS BV2 cells and APP/PS1 transgenic (Tg) mice were used as in vitro and in vivo experimental models to determine the regulatory roles of OPTN in neuroinflammation of AD. Sophisticated molecular technologies including quantitative (q) RT-PCR, western blot, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) and immunofluorescence (IF) were employed to reveal the inherent mechanisms. RESULTS As a consequence, key roles of OPTN in regulating neuroinflammation were identified by depressing the activity of absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) inflammasomes and receptor interacting serine/threonine kinase 1 (RIPK1)-mediated NF-κB inflammatory mechanisms. In detail, we found that expression of OPTN was downregulated, which resulted in activation of AIM2 inflammasomes due to a deficiency in mitophagy in APP/PS1 Tg mice. By ectopic expression, OPTN blocks the effects of Aβ oligomer (Aβo) on activating AIM2 inflammasomes by inhibiting mRNA expression of AIM2 and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a C-terminal caspase recruitment domain (ASC), leading to a reduction in the active form of caspase-1 and interleukin (IL)-1β in microglial cells. Moreover, RIPK1 was also found to be negatively regulated by OPTN via ubiquitin protease hydrolysis, resulting in the synthesis of IL-1β by activating the transcriptional activity of NF-κB in BV2 cells. As an E3 ligase, the UBAN domain of OPTN binds to the death domain (DD) of RIPK1 to facilitate its ubiquitination. Based on these observations, ectopically expressed OPTN in APP/PS1 Tg mice deactivated microglial cells and astrocytes via the AIM2 inflammasome and RIPK-dependent NF-κB pathways, leading to reduce neuroinflammation. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that OPTN can alleviate neuroinflammation through AIM2 and RIPK1 pathways, suggesting that OPTN deficiency may be a potential factor leading to the occurrence of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Long Cao
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei-Pei Guan
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China
| | - Shen-Qing Zhang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Yang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Shi Huang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China.
| | - Pu Wang
- College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, No. 3-11. Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110819, People's Republic of China.
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Dual Roles of Microglia in the Basal Ganglia in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22083907. [PMID: 33918947 PMCID: PMC8070536 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22083907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
With the increasing age of the population, the incidence of Parkinson’s disease (PD) has increased exponentially. The development of novel therapeutic interventions requires an understanding of the involvement of senescent brain cells in the pathogenesis of PD. In this review, we highlight the roles played by microglia in the basal ganglia in the pathophysiological processes of PD. In PD, dopaminergic (DAergic) neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) activates the microglia, which then promote DAergic neuronal degeneration by releasing potentially neurotoxic factors, including nitric oxide, cytokines, and reactive oxygen species. On the other hand, microglia are also activated in the basal ganglia outputs (the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the globus pallidus) in response to excess glutamate released from hyperactive subthalamic nuclei-derived synapses. The activated microglia then eliminate the hyperactive glutamatergic synapses. Synapse elimination may be the mechanism underlying the compensation that masks the appearance of PD symptoms despite substantial DAergic neuronal loss. Microglial senescence may correlate with their enhanced neurotoxicity in the SNc and the reduced compensatory actions in the basal ganglia outputs. The dual roles of microglia in different basal ganglia regions make it difficult to develop interventions targeting microglia for PD treatment.
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Deurveilher S, Golovin T, Hall S, Semba K. Microglia dynamics in sleep/wake states and in response to sleep loss. Neurochem Int 2020; 143:104944. [PMID: 33359188 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Sleep has an essential role for optimal brain function, but the cellular substrates for sleep regulation are not fully understood. Microglia, the immune cells of the brain, have gained increasingly more attention over the last two decades for their important roles in various brain functions that extend beyond their well-known immune function, including brain development, neuronal protection, and synaptic plasticity. Here we review recent advances in understanding: i) morphological and phenotypic dynamics of microglia including process motility/growth and gene/protein expression, and ii) microglia-neuron interactions including phagocytosis and contact at synapses which alters neuronal circuit activity, both under physiological state in the adult brain. We discuss how the microglia-neuron interactions particularly at synapses could influence microglia and neuronal activities across circadian cycles and sleep/wake states. We also review recent findings on how microglia respond to sleep loss. We conclude by pointing out key questions and proposing suggestions for future research to better understand the role of microglia in sleep regulation, sleep homeostasis, and the function of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Deurveilher
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Tatjana Golovin
- Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Shannon Hall
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Kazue Semba
- Department of Medical Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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Abe N, Nishihara T, Yorozuya T, Tanaka J. Microglia and Macrophages in the Pathological Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems. Cells 2020; 9:cells9092132. [PMID: 32967118 PMCID: PMC7563796 DOI: 10.3390/cells9092132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the immunocompetent cells in the central nervous system (CNS), have long been studied as pathologically deteriorating players in various CNS diseases. However, microglia exert ameliorating neuroprotective effects, which prompted us to reconsider their roles in CNS and peripheral nervous system (PNS) pathophysiology. Moreover, recent findings showed that microglia play critical roles even in the healthy CNS. The microglial functions that normally contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis in the CNS are modified by other cells, such as astrocytes and infiltrated myeloid cells; thus, the microglial actions on neurons are extremely complex. For a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology of various diseases, including those of the PNS, it is important to understand microglial functioning. In this review, we discuss both the favorable and unfavorable roles of microglia in neuronal survival in various CNS and PNS disorders. We also discuss the roles of blood-borne macrophages in the pathogenesis of CNS and PNS injuries because they cooperatively modify the pathological processes of resident microglia. Finally, metabolic changes in glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, with special reference to the pro-/anti-inflammatory activation of microglia, are intensively addressed, because they are profoundly correlated with the generation of reactive oxygen species and changes in pro-/anti-inflammatory phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Abe
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan; (N.A.); (T.Y.)
| | - Tasuku Nishihara
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan; (N.A.); (T.Y.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-89-960-5383; Fax: +81-89-960-5386
| | - Toshihiro Yorozuya
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan; (N.A.); (T.Y.)
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and cellular Physiology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan;
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Choudhury ME, Miyanishi K, Takeda H, Islam A, Matsuoka N, Kubo M, Matsumoto S, Kunieda T, Nomoto M, Yano H, Tanaka J. Phagocytic elimination of synapses by microglia during sleep. Glia 2019; 68:44-59. [PMID: 31429116 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Synaptic strength reduces during sleep, but the underlying mechanisms of this process are unclear. This study showed reduction of synaptic proteins in rat prefrontal cortex (PFC) at AM7 or Zeitgeber Time (ZT0), when the light phase or sleeping period for rats started. At this time point, microglia were weakly activated, displaying larger and more granular somata with increased CD11b expression compared with those at ZT12, as revealed by flow cytometry. Expression of opsonins, such as complements or MFG-E8, matrix metalloproteinases, and microglial markers at ZT0 were increased compared with that at ZT12. Microglia at ZT0 phagocytosed synapses, as revealed by immunohistochemical staining. Immunoblotting detected more synapsin I in the isolated microglia at ZT0 than at ZT12. Complement C3- or MFG-E8-bound synapses were the most abundant at ZT0, some of which were phagocytosed by microglia. Systemic administration of synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone reduced microglial size, granularity and CD11b expression at ZT0, resembling microglia at ZT12, and increased synaptic proteins and decreased the sleeping period. Noradrenaline (NA) suppressed glutamate-induced phagocytosis in primary cultured microglia. Systemic administration of the brain monoamine-depleting agent reserpine decreased NA content and synapsin I expression in PFC, and increased expression of microglia markers, C3 and MFG-E8, while increasing the sleeping period. A NA precursor l-threo-dihydroxyphenylserine abolished the reserpine-induced changes. These results suggest that microglia may eliminate presumably weak synapses during every sleep phase. The circadian changes in concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids and brain NA might be correlated with the circadian changes of microglial phenotypes and synaptic strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed E Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Kazuya Miyanishi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Haruna Takeda
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Afsana Islam
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Nayu Matsuoka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Madoka Kubo
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shirabe Matsumoto
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Takeharu Kunieda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nomoto
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
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Miyanishi K, Choudhury ME, Watanabe M, Kubo M, Nomoto M, Yano H, Tanaka J. Behavioral tests predicting striatal dopamine level in a rat hemi-Parkinson's disease model. Neurochem Int 2018; 122:38-46. [PMID: 30419255 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a frequent neurodegenerative disease causing bradykinesia, tremor, muscle rigidity and postural instability. Although its main pathology is progressive dopaminergic (DArgic) neuron loss in the substantia nigra, motor deficits are thought not to become apparent until most DArgic neurons are lost, probably due to compensatory mechanisms that overcome the decline of DA level in the striatum. Even in animal PD models, it is difficult to detect motor deficits when most DArgic neurons are functional. In this study, we performed various behavioral tests (apomorphine-induced rotation, cylinder, forepaw adjustment steps (FAS), beam walking, rota-rod, and open-field), using 6-hydroxydopamine (OHDA) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hemi-PD model rats with various striatal DA levels, to find the best way to predict the DA level from earlier disease stages. Different from the 6-OHDA-induced model, reduction in the striatal DA levels in the LPS-model was less significant. Among the behavioral tests, data from cylinder and FAS tests, which evaluate forelimb movements, best correlated with decline of the DA level. They also correlated well with decreased body weight gain. The beam and apomorphine tests showed less significant correlation than the cylinder and FAS tests. Open-field and rota-rod tests were not useful. Expressional levels of mRNA encoding tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a marker of DArgic neurons, correlated well with the DA level. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 mRNA expression correlated with the striatal DA level and may be related to compensatory mechanisms. These results suggest that motor impairments of PD should be evaluated by forelimb movements, or hands and forearms in clinical settings, rather than movement of the body or large joints. The combination of cylinder and FAS tests may be the best to evaluate the rat PD models, in which many DArgic neurons survive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuya Miyanishi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Mohammed E Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Minori Watanabe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Madoka Kubo
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nomoto
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan.
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Abe N, Choudhury ME, Watanabe M, Kawasaki S, Nishihara T, Yano H, Matsumoto S, Kunieda T, Kumon Y, Yorozuya T, Tanaka J. Comparison of the detrimental features of microglia and infiltrated macrophages in traumatic brain injury: A study using a hypnotic bromovalerylurea. Glia 2018; 66:2158-2173. [PMID: 30194744 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Microglia and blood-borne macrophages in injured or diseased brains are difficult to distinguish because they share many common characteristics. However, the identification of microglia-specific markers and the use of flow cytometry have recently made it easy to discriminate these types of cells. In this study, we analyzed the features of blood-borne macrophages, and activated and resting microglia in a rat traumatic brain injury (TBI) model. Oxidative injury was indicated in macrophages and neurons in TBI lesions by the presence of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) was markedly observed in granulocytes and macrophages, but not in activated or resting microglia. Dihydroethidium staining supported microglia not being the major source of ROS in TBI lesions. Furthermore, macrophages expressed NADPH oxidase 2, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and CD68 at higher levels than microglia. In contrast, microglia expressed transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α at higher levels than macrophages. A hypnotic, bromovalerylurea (BU), which has anti-inflammatory effects, reduced both glycolysis and mitochondrial oxygen consumption. BU administration inhibited chemokine CCL2 expression, accumulation of monocytes/macrophages, 8-OHdG generation, mitochondrial ROS generation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression, and markedly ameliorated the outcome of the TBI model. Yet, BU did not inhibit microglial activation or expression of TGFβ1 and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). These results indicate that macrophages are the major aggravating cell type in TBI lesions, in particular during the acute phase. Activated microglia may even play favorable roles. Reduction of cellular energy metabolism in macrophages and suppression of CCL2 expression in injured tissue may lead to amelioration of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Abe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan.,Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Mohammed E Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Minori Watanabe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shun Kawasaki
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan.,Department of Surgery and Palliative Medicine, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tasuku Nishihara
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shirabe Matsumoto
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Takehiro Kunieda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kumon
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Yorozuya
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
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13
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Islam A, Choudhury ME, Kigami Y, Utsunomiya R, Matsumoto S, Watanabe H, Kumon Y, Kunieda T, Yano H, Tanaka J. Sustained anti-inflammatory effects of TGF-β1 on microglia/macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2017; 1864:721-734. [PMID: 29269050 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic brain injuries caused release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that activate microglia/macrophages (MG/MPs) by binding to Toll-like receptors. Using middle cerebral artery transiently occluded rats, we confirmed that MG/MPs expressed inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) on 3days after reperfusion (dpr) in ischemic rat brain. iNOS expression almost disappeared on 7dpr when transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) expression was robustly increased. After transient incubation with TGF-β1 for 24h, rat primary microglial cells were incubated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and released NO level was measured. The NO release was persistently suppressed even 72h after removal of TGF-β1. The sustained TGF-β1 effects were not attributable to microglia-derived endogenous TGF-β1, as revealed by TGF-β1 knockdown and in vitro quantification studies. Then, boiled supernatants prepared from ischemic brain tissues showed the similar sustained inhibitory effects on LPS-treated microglial cells that were prevented by the TGF-β1 receptor-selective blocker SB525334. After incubation with TGF-β1 for 24h and its subsequent removal, LPS-induced phosphorylation of IκB kinases (IKKs), IκB degradation, and NFκB nuclear translocation were inhibited in a sustained manner. SB525334 abolished all these effects of TGF-β1. In consistent with the in vitro results, phosphorylated IKK-immunoreactivity was abundant in MG/MPs in ischemic brain lesion on 3dpr, whereas it was almost disappeared on 7dpr. The findings suggest that abundantly produced TGF-β1 in ischemic brain displays sustained anti-inflammatory effects on microglial cells by persistently inhibiting endogenous Toll-like receptor ligand-induced IκB degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afsana Islam
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | | | - Yuka Kigami
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Ryo Utsunomiya
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Shirabe Matsumoto
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Hideaki Watanabe
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kumon
- Department of Regeneration of Community Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Takeharu Kunieda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Japan.
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14
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Aono H, Choudhury ME, Higaki H, Miyanishi K, Kigami Y, Fujita K, Akiyama JI, Takahashi H, Yano H, Kubo M, Nishikawa N, Nomoto M, Tanaka J. Microglia may compensate for dopaminergic neuron loss in experimental Parkinsonism through selective elimination of glutamatergic synapses from the subthalamic nucleus. Glia 2017; 65:1833-1847. [PMID: 28836295 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) symptoms do not become apparent until most dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) degenerate, suggesting that compensatory mechanisms play a role. Here, we investigated the compensatory involvement of activated microglia in the SN pars reticulata (SNr) and the globus pallidus (GP) in a 6-hydroxydopamine-induced rat hemiparkinsonism model. Activated microglia accumulated more markedly in the SNr than in the SNc in the model. The cells had enlarged somata and expressed phagocytic markers CD68 and NG2 proteoglycan in a limited region of the SNr, where synapsin I- and postsynaptic density 95-immunoreactivities were reduced. The activated microglia engulfed pre- and post-synaptic elements, including NMDA receptors into their phagosomes. Cells in the SNr and GP engulfed red fluorescent DiI that was injected into the subthalamic nucleus (STN) as an anterograde tracer. Rat primary microglia increased their phagocytic activities in response to glutamate, with increased expression of mRNA encoding phagocytosis-related factors. The synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone overcame the stimulating effect of glutamate. Subcutaneous single administration of dexamethasone to the PD model rats suppressed microglial activation in the SNr, resulting in aggravated motor dysfunctions, while expression of mRNA encoding glutamatergic, but not GABAergic, synaptic elements increased. These findings suggest that microglia in the SNr and GP become activated and selectively eliminate glutamatergic synapses from the STN in response to increased glutamatergic activity. Thus, microglia may be involved in a negative feedback loop in the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia to compensate for the loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Aono
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | | | - Hiromi Higaki
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Kazuya Miyanishi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Yuka Kigami
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Kohdai Fujita
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Jun-Ichi Akiyama
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hisaaki Takahashi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan.,Division of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Madoka Kubo
- Department of Therapeutic Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Noriko Nishikawa
- Department of Therapeutic Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Masahiro Nomoto
- Department of Therapeutic Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
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Kawasaki S, Abe N, Ohtake F, Islam A, Choudhury ME, Utsunomiya R, Kikuchi S, Nishihara T, Kuwabara J, Yano H, Watanabe Y, Aibiki M, Yorozuya T, Tanaka J. Effects of hypnotic bromovalerylurea on microglial BV2 cells. J Pharmacol Sci 2017. [PMID: 28645489 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
An old sedative and hypnotic bromovalerylurea (BU) has anti-inflammatory effects. BU suppressed nitric oxide (NO) release and proinflammatory cytokine expression by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated BV2 cells, a murine microglial cell line. However, BU did not inhibit LPS-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB and subsequent transcription. BU suppressed LPS-induced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and expression of interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1). The Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) inhibitor filgotinib suppressed the NO release much more weakly than that of BU, although filgotinib almost completely prevented LPS-induced STAT1 phosphorylation. Knockdown of JAK1, STAT1, or IRF1 did not affect the suppressive effects of BU on LPS-induced NO release by BV2 cells. A combination of BU and filgotinib synergistically suppressed the NO release. The mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone, which did not prevent STAT1 phosphorylation or IRF1 expression, suppressed proinflammatory mediator expression less significantly than BU. BU and rotenone reduced intracellular ATP (iATP) levels to a similar extent. A combination of rotenone and filgotinib suppressed NO release by LPS-treated BV2 cells as strongly as BU. These results suggest that anti-inflammatory actions of BU may be attributable to the synergism of inhibition of JAK1/STAT1-dependent pathways and reduction in iATP level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun Kawasaki
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan; Department of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Naoki Abe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan; Department of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Fumito Ohtake
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Afsana Islam
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | | | - Ryo Utsunomiya
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kikuchi
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Tasuku Nishihara
- Department of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Jun Kuwabara
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery and Surgical Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Yuji Watanabe
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery and Surgical Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Mayuki Aibiki
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Yorozuya
- Department of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime 791-0295, Japan.
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