Maternal high-fat diet stimulates proinflammatory pathway and increases the expression of Tryptophan Hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in adolescent mice hippocampus

Improving dietary patterns in obese mice: Effects on body weight, adiposity, anhedonia-like behavior, pro-BDNF expression and 5-HT system

INTRODUCTION

The excessive fat accumulation in obesity, resulting from an unbalanced diet, can lead to metabolic and neurological disorders and increase the risk of developing anxiety and depression.

AIM

Assess the impact of dietary intervention (DI) on the serotonergic system, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and behaviors of obese mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6 mice, 5 weeks old, received a high-fat diet (HFD) for 10 weeks for the induction of obesity. After this period, for 8 weeks, half of these animals received a control diet (CD), group obese (OB) + control diet (OB + CD, n = 10), and another half continued being fed HFD, group obese + HFD (OB + HFD, n = 10). At the end of the eighth week of intervention, behavioral tests were performed (sucrose preference test, open field, novel object recognition, elevated plus maze and tail suspension). Body weight and food intake were assessed weekly. Visceral adiposity, the hippocampal and hypothalamic protein expression of BDNF, 5-HT1A (5-HT1A serotonin receptor) and TPH2 (key enzyme in serotonin synthesis), were evaluated after euthanasia.

RESULTS

The dietary intervention involved changing from a HFD to a CD over an 8-week period, effectively reduced body weight gain, adiposity, and anhedonia-like behavior. In the OB + HFD group, we saw a lower sucrose preference and shorter traveled distance in the open field, along with increased pro-BDNF expression in the hypothalamus compared to the OB + CD mice. However, the levels of TPH2 and 5-HT1A remained unchanged.

CONCLUSION

The HFD model induced both obesity and anhedonia, but the dietary intervention successfully improved these conditions.

Maternal high fat diet programs spatial learning and central leptin signaling in mouse offspring in a sex-specific manner

Environmental factors in early life have been demonstrated to increase the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring, especially the deficiency of the cognitive ability. Leptin has emerged as a key hormone that conveys information on energy stores, but there is growing appreciation that leptin signaling may also play an important role in neurodevelopment. The present study aimed to investigate whether maternal HFD exposure impairs the offspring learning and memory through the programming of central leptin system. We observed that hippocampus-dependent learning and memory were impaired in male but not female offspring from HFD-fed maternal ancestors (C57BL/6 mice), as assessed by novel object recognition and Morris water maze tests. Moreover, the chromatin immunoprecipitation results revealed the maternal HFD consumption led to the increasement in the binding of the histone marker H3K9me3 in male offspring, which mediates gene silencing in the leptin receptor promoter region. Furthermore, there was an increase in the expression of the histone methylase SUV39H1 in male but not female offspring, which regulates H3K9me3. Additionally, it has been observed that IL-6 and IL-1 also could lead to similar alternations when acting on cultured hippocampal neurons in vitro. Taken together, our data suggest that maternal HFD consumption influences male offspring hippocampal cognitive performance in a sex-specific manner, and central leptin signaling may serve as the cross-talk between maternal diet and cognitive impairment in offspring.

Electroacupuncture stimulation ameliorates cognitive impairment induced by long-term high-fat diet by regulating microglial BDNF

Long-term high-fat diet (HFD) in adolescents leads to impaired hippocampal function and increases the risk of cognitive impairment. Studies have shown that HFD activates hippocampal microglia and induces hippocampal inflammation, which is an important factor for cognitive impairment. Electroacupuncture stimulation (ES), a nerve stimulation therapy, is anti-inflammatory. This study explored its therapeutic potential and mechanism of action in obesity-related cognitive impairment. 4-week-old C57 mice were given either normal or HFD for 22 weeks. At 19 weeks, some of the HFD mice were treated with ES and nigericin sodium salt. The cognitive behavior was assessed through Morris water maze test at 23 weeks. Western blotting was used to detect the expression levels of pro-inflammatory molecules IL-1β and IL-1R, synaptic plasticity related proteins synaptophysin and Postsynaptic Density-95 (PSD-95), and apoptotic molecules (Caspase-3 and Bcl-2), in the hippocampus. The number, morphology, and status of microglia, along with the brain-derived neurotrophic factor（BDNF） content, were analyzed using immunofluorescence. ES treatment improved cognitive deficits in HFD model mice, and decreased the expressions of microglial activation marker, CD68, and microglial BDNF. Inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine, IL-1β, and IL-1R promoted PSD-95 and synaptophysin expressions. Peripheral NLRP3 inflammasome agonist injections exacerbated the cognitive deficits in HFD mice and promoted the expressions of IL-1β and IL-1R in the hippocampus. The microglia showed obvious morphological damage and apoptosis. Collectively, our findings suggest that ES inhibits inflammation, regulates microglial BDNF, and causes remodeling of hippocampal function in mice to counteract obesity-like induced cognitive impairment. Overexcitation of peripheral inflammasome complexes induces hippocampal microglia apoptosis, which hinders the effects of ES.

Supplementation of the maternal diet with Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.) prevents cognitive impairment in the offspring of obese mothers

Maternal obesity may trigger long-term neurodevelopmental disorders in offspring. Considering the benefits of the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K.), a rich source of nutrients such as selenium, this study aimed to evaluate its effect on the behavior of obese rat offspring and its relationship with oxidative stress. From 60 days of age until weaning, female Wistar rats were fed a high-fat diet (mHF) or an HF diet supplemented with 5% Brazil nut (mHF/BN), while control mothers (mCTL) were fed a standard diet or a standard diet supplemented with 5% Brazil nut (mBN). Male pups received a standard diet throughout life and, at 30 and 90 days old, were subjected to behavioral tasks to evaluate anxiety and cognition. Biochemical evaluations were performed at 90 days of age. No alterations were observed in the anxiety behavior of the offspring. However, the offspring of the mHF group (oHF) exhibited impaired short-term memory at 30 and 90 days of age and impaired long-term memory at 30 days. Short-term memory impairment was prevented by Brazil nuts in young rats (30 days). While the serum selenium concentration was reduced in the oHF group, the serum catalase concentration was reduced in all groups, without changes in lipid peroxidation or protein carbonylation. Brazil nut maternal diet supplementation prevented short- and long-term cognitive impairment in the offspring, which may be related to the selenium levels.

Multi-Omics Data Integration Reveals Sex-Dependent Hippocampal Programming by Maternal High-Fat Diet during Lactation in Adult Mouse Offspring

Early-life exposure to high-fat diets (HF) can program metabolic and cognitive alterations in adult offspring. Although the hippocampus plays a crucial role in memory and metabolic homeostasis, few studies have reported the impact of maternal HF on this structure. We assessed the effects of maternal HF during lactation on physiological, metabolic, and cognitive parameters in young adult offspring mice. To identify early-programming mechanisms in the hippocampus, we developed a multi-omics strategy in male and female offspring. Maternal HF induced a transient increased body weight at weaning, and a mild glucose intolerance only in 3-month-old male mice with no change in plasma metabolic parameters in adult male and female offspring. Behavioral alterations revealed by a Barnes maze test were observed both in 6-month-old male and female mice. The multi-omics strategy unveiled sex-specific transcriptomic and proteomic modifications in the hippocampus of adult offspring. These studies that were confirmed by regulon analysis show that, although genes whose expression was modified by maternal HF were different between sexes, the main pathways affected were similar with mitochondria and synapses as main hippocampal targets of maternal HF. The effects of maternal HF reported here may help to better characterize sex-dependent molecular pathways involved in cognitive disorders and neurodegenerative diseases.

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) controls central nervous system and promotes peripheral nervous system regeneration via physical exercise

Physical exercise has beneficial effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) and cognitive processes, including learning. Although it is not known if anaerobic resistance training and high-intensity interval training, which involve alternating brief bouts of highly intense anaerobic activity with rest periods, have comparable effects on AHN. Also, while less thoroughly investigated, individual genetic diversity in the overall response to physical activity is likely to play a key role in the effects of exercise on AHN. Physical exercise has been shown to improve health on average, although the benefits may vary from person to person, perhaps due to genetic differences. Maximal aerobic capacity and metabolic health may improve significantly with aerobic exercise for some people, while the same amount of training may have little effect on others. This review discusses the AHN's capability for peripheral nervous system (PNS) regeneration and central nervous system (CNS) control via physical exercise. Exercise neurogenicity, effective genes, growth factors, and the neurotrophic factors involved in PNS regeneration and CNS control were discussed. Also, some disorders that could be affected by AHN and physical exercise are summarized.

Adverse effects of gestational ω-3 and ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid imbalance on the programming of fetal brain development

Obesity is a key medical challenge of our time. The increasing number of children born to overweight or obese women is alarming. During pregnancy, the circulation of the mother and her fetus interact to maintain the uninterrupted availability of essential nutrients for fetal organ development. In doing so, the mother's dietary preference determines the amount and composition of nutrients reaching the fetus. In particular, the availability of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), chiefly their ω-3 and ω-6 subclasses, can change when pregnant women choose a specific diet. Here, we provide a succinct overview of PUFA biochemistry, including exchange routes between ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs, the phenotypes, and probable neurodevelopmental disease associations of offspring born to mothers consuming specific PUFAs, and their mechanistic study in experimental models to typify signaling pathways, transcriptional, and epigenetic mechanisms by which PUFAs can imprint long-lasting modifications to brain structure and function. We emphasize that the ratio, rather than the amount of individual ω-3 or ω-6 PUFAs, might underpin physiologically correct cellular differentiation programs, be these for neurons or glia, during pregnancy. Thereupon, the PUFA-driven programming of the brain is contextualized for childhood obesity, metabolic, and endocrine illnesses.

Electrochemical immunosensor AuNPs/NG-PANI/ITO-PET for the determination of BDNF in depressed mice serum

A novel electrochemical immunosensor was developed for highly sensitive detection of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a well-known depression marker. The immunosensor was fabricated by modifying indium tin oxide-coated polyethylene terephthalate (ITO-PET) with N-doped graphene-polyaniline (NG-PANI) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to enhance the conductivity and protein loading capacity. Subsequently, BDNF was immobilized onto the electrode surface via gold-sulfur bonds, followed by the attachment of biotinylated antibody (Biotin-Ab) and horseradish peroxidase-avidin (HRP-Avidin) to create the final immunosensor (HRP-Avidin-Biotin-Ab-BDNF-AuNPs/NG-PANI/ITO-PET). The proposed immunosensor exhibited a linear range of determination (0.781-400 pg/mL) with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.261 pg/mL (S/N = 3) and excellent reproducibility (RSD = 1.4%) and stability (92.7%, RSD = 3.1%). Additionally, the immunosensor demonstrated good anti-interference performance and good recovery (98.1-107%). To evaluate the practical utility of the immunosensor, BDNF levels were quantified in the serum of mice with depression induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). The results indicated that the serum BDNF levels were significantly decreased in the depression model group compared with the control group, highlighting the potential of this immunosensor for clinical detection of BDNF in depression diagnosis and treatment.

A snapshot of gut microbiota data from murine models of Autism Spectrum Disorder: Still a blurred picture

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction and repetitive/stereotyped behaviors. In recent years, the role of microbiota-gut-brain axis in ASD pathogenesis received growing attention, appearing as an attractive therapeutic target. We provide a comprehensive overview of changes in microbiota composition in ASD murine models so far identified, and summarize the therapeutic approaches targeting the microbiota on ASD-like neurobehavioral profile. Although alterations in microbiota composition have been observed in both genetic and environmental murine models of ASD, a clear microbiota profile shared by different ASD murine models has not been identified. We documented substantial discrepancies among studies (often within the same model), likely due to several confounding factors (from sex and age of animals to housing conditions). Despite these limitations, ASD animal models (under standardized conditions) remain a useful tool to evaluate (i) the beneficial effects of manipulations of gut microbiota on behavioral abnormalities; (ii) underlying neurobiological mechanisms related to gut-brain axis; and (iii) to identify optimal time windows for therapeutic interventions.

The immediate effect of overnutrition and fluoxetine treatment during the critical period of development on the hippocampus

It is well known that overnutrition, overweight, and obesity in children can modulate brain mechanisms of plasticity, monoaminergic systems, and mitochondrial function. The immediate effect of overnutrition during the developmental period has not been thoroughly examined in rats until the present. This study sought to evaluate the impact on adult rats of early life overfeeding and fluoxetine treatment from post-natal day 1 (PND1) to post-natal day 21 (PND21) relative to mitochondrial function, oxidative balance, and expression of specific monoaminergic genes in the hippocampus. The following were evaluated: mitochondrial function markers, oxidative stress biomarkers, dopamine-and serotonin-related genes, and BDNF mRNA levels. Overfeeding during the lactation period deregulates cellular metabolism and the monoaminergic systems in the hippocampus. Strikingly, serotonin modulation by fluoxetine treatment protected against some of the effects of early overnutrition. We conclude that overfeeding during brain development induce detrimental effects in mitochondria and in the genes that regulate homeostatic status that can be the molecular mechanisms related to neurological diseases.

Bidirectional communication between brain and visceral white adipose tissue: Its potential impact on Alzheimer's disease

A variety of axes between brain and abdominal organs have been reported, but the interaction between brain and visceral white adipose tissue (vWAT) remains unclear. In this review, we summarized human studies on the association between brain and vWAT, and generalized their interaction and the underlying mechanisms according to animal and cell experiments. On that basis, we come up with the concept of the brain-vWAT axis (BVA). Furthermore, we analyzed the potential mechanisms of involvement of BVA in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), including vWAT-derived fatty acids, immunological properties of vWAT, vWAT-derived retinoic acid and vWAT-regulated insulin resistance. The proposal of BVA may expand our understanding to some extent of how the vWAT impacts on brain health and diseases, and provide a novel approach to study the pathogenesis and treatment strategies of neurodegenerative disorders.

Maternal obesity and the impact of associated early-life inflammation on long-term health of offspring

The prevalence of obesity is increasingly common in the United States, with ~25% of women of reproductive age being overweight or obese. Metaflammation, a chronic low grade inflammatory state caused by altered metabolism, is often present in pregnancies complicated by obesity. As a result, the fetuses of mothers who are obese are exposed to an in-utero environment that has altered nutrients and cytokines. Notably, both human and preclinical studies have shown that children born to mothers with obesity have higher risks of developing chronic illnesses affecting various organ systems. In this review, the authors sought to present the role of cytokines and inflammation during healthy pregnancy and determine how maternal obesity changes the inflammatory landscape of the mother, leading to fetal reprogramming. Next, the negative long-term impact on offspring’s health in numerous disease contexts, including offspring’s risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders (autism, attention deficit and hyperactive disorder), metabolic diseases (obesity, type 2 diabetes), atopy, and malignancies will be discussed along with the potential of altered immune/inflammatory status in offspring as a contributor of these diseases. Finally, the authors will list critical knowledge gaps in the field of developmental programming of health and diseases in the context of offspring of mothers with obesity, particularly the understudied role of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

The impact of maternal high-fat diet on offspring neurodevelopment

A maternal high-fat diet affects offspring neurodevelopment with long-term consequences on their brain health and behavior. During the past three decades, obesity has rapidly increased in the whole human population worldwide, including women of reproductive age. It is known that maternal obesity caused by a high-fat diet may lead to neurodevelopmental disorders in their offspring, such as autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. A maternal high-fat diet can affect offspring neurodevelopment due to inflammatory activation of the maternal gut, adipose tissue, and placenta, mirrored by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in both maternal and fetal circulation. Furthermore, a maternal high fat diet causes gut microbial dysbiosis further contributing to increased inflammatory milieu during pregnancy and lactation, thus disturbing both prenatal and postnatal neurodevelopment of the offspring. In addition, global molecular and cellular changes in the offspring's brain may occur due to epigenetic modifications including the downregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and the activation of the endocannabinoid system. These neurodevelopmental aberrations are reflected in behavioral deficits observed in animals, corresponding to behavioral phenotypes of certain neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. Here we reviewed recent findings from rodent models and from human studies to reveal potential mechanisms by which a maternal high-fat diet interferes with the neurodevelopment of the offspring.

High-Salt Diet in the Pre- and Postweaning Periods Leads to Amygdala Oxidative Stress and Changes in Locomotion and Anxiety-Like Behaviors of Male Wistar Rats

High-salt (HS) diets have recently been linked to oxidative stress in the brain, a fact that may be a precursor to behavioral changes, such as those involving anxiety-like behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated the amygdala redox status after consuming a HS diet in the pre- or postweaning periods. This study aimed to evaluate the amygdala redox status and anxiety-like behaviors in adulthood, after inclusion of HS diet in two periods: preconception, gestation, and lactation (preweaning); and only after weaning (postweaning). Initially, 18 females and 9 male Wistar rats received a standard (n = 9 females and 4 males) or a HS diet (n = 9 females and 5 males) for 120 days. After mating, females continued to receive the aforementioned diets during gestation and lactation. Weaning occurred at 21-day-old Wistar rats and the male offspring were subdivided: control-control (C-C)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), control-HS (C-HS)—offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11), HS-C—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9–11), and HS-HS—offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9–11). At adulthood, the male offspring performed the elevated plus maze and open field tests. At 152-day-old Wistar rats, the offspring were euthanized and the amygdala was removed for redox state analysis. The HS-HS group showed higher locomotion and rearing frequency in the open field test. These results indicate that this group developed hyperactivity. The C-HS group had a higher ratio of entries and time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze test in addition to a higher head-dipping frequency. These results suggest less anxiety-like behaviors. In the analysis of the redox state, less activity of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the amygdala were shown in the amygdala of animals that received a high-salt diet regardless of the period (pre- or postweaning). In conclusion, the high-salt diet promoted hyperactivity when administered in the pre- and postweaning periods. In animals that received only in the postweaning period, the addition of salt induced a reduction in anxiety-like behaviors. Also, regardless of the period, salt provided amygdala oxidative stress, which may be linked to the observed behaviors.

Visceral adiposity, inflammation, and hippocampal function in obesity

The 'apple-shaped' anatomical pattern that accompanies visceral adiposity increases risk for multiple chronic diseases, including conditions that impact the brain, such as diabetes and hypertension. However, distinguishing between the consequences of visceral obesity, as opposed to visceral adiposity-associated metabolic and cardiovascular pathologies, presents certain challenges. This review summarizes current literature on relationships between adipose tissue distribution and cognition in preclinical models and highlights unanswered questions surrounding the potential role of tissue- and cell type-specific insulin resistance in these effects. While gaps in knowledge persist related to insulin insensitivity and cognitive impairment in obesity, several recent studies suggest that cells of the neurovascular unit contribute to hippocampal synaptic dysfunction, and this review interprets those findings in the context of progressive metabolic dysfunction in the CNS. Signalling between cerebrovascular endothelial cells, astrocytes, microglia, and neurons has been linked with memory deficits in visceral obesity, and this article describes the cellular changes in each of these populations with respect to their role in amplification or diminution of peripheral signals. The picture emerging from these studies, while incomplete, implicates pro-inflammatory cytokines, insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia in various stages of obesity-induced hippocampal dysfunction. As in the parable of the five blind wanderers holding different parts of an elephant, considerable work remains in order to assemble a model for the underlying mechanisms linking visceral adiposity with age-related cognitive decline.

Maternal high-fat diet increases anhedonic behavior and modulates hippocampal Mash1 and BDNF expression in adult offspring

BACKGROUND

The consumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) during pregnancy and perinatal periods can lead to long-term effects in the offspring central nervous system, affecting pathways related to neurogenesis and behavior, and increasing predispositions to depressive and anxiety-like behaviors. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effects of a maternal HFD on the hippocampi of adult offspring and behaviors related to anxiety and depression.

METHODS

The protein and mRNA expression of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Mash1, Notch1, Hes5, serotonin transporter (SERT), 5-HT1A serotonergic receptor (5-HT1A), tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2, key enzyme of serotonin synthesis), JNK and pJNK were analyzed in the hippocampi of male Swiss mice. Hippocampal serotonin levels were measured using ELISA. The lipid peroxidation, total oxidant status, total antioxidant status, and GSH/GSSG were evaluated as oxidative stress measures. For the behavioral analysis, the open field, elevated plus maze, and sucrose preference tests were used.

RESULTS

Maternal HFD led to increased body weight in dams and their offspring, as well as altered body composition and LDL levels in the offspring. There were no alterations in oxidative stress or JNK phosphorylation. Hippocampal Mash1 and BDNF expression were altered in HFD offspring. The HFD offspring exhibited anhedonic behavior.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that maternal HFD leads to long-term alterations in the offspring's neurotrophic systems, impairing their behavior.

Maternal feeding patterns affect the offspring's brain: focus on serotonin 5-HT2C and 5-HT2A receptors

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown a relationship between the composition of the maternal diet and acquiring a risk of mental illnesses through changes in the offspring's brain. This study assessed the role of a modified maternal diet on the levels of serotonin (5-HT)2C and 5-HT2A receptors in the offspring brain.

METHODS

Wistar rat dams during gestation and lactation were maintained either on a standard (SD) or special diets: high-fat (HFD), high-carbohydrate (rich in sucrose, HCD) or mixed (MD). Offspring were weaned to SD after lactation, and at postnatal days (PNDs) 28 and 63 changes in the 5-HT2C and 5-HT2A receptor levels were evaluated in their prefrontal cortex (PFCx), nucleus accumbens (NAc), dorsal striatum (DSTR) and hippocampus (HIP).

RESULTS

Maternal HFD reduced the expression of 5-HT2C receptors in male rats at PND 28 in the PFCx, NAc, and DSTR but increased it at PND 63 in male animals in the NAc and DSTR. HCD induced a decrease in the expression of 5-HT2C receptors in male offspring at PND 28 but increased it in female rats at PND 63 in the PFCx. MD reduced 5-HT2C receptor expression in males at PND 28 in the PFCx and increased it in male and female offspring at PND 28 in the HIP. Moreover, maternal HFD reduced 5-HT2A receptor levels within the PFCx in adolescent male offspring.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that a modified maternal diet induces age- and sex-specific adaptive changes mainly in 5-HT2C receptors, which may contribute to disturbances in the offspring brain.

Pharmacogenetic-based management of depression: Role of traditional Persian medicine

Depression is one of the most common mental disorders worldwide. The genetic factors are linked to depression and anti-depressant outcomes. Traditional Persian medicine (TPM) manuscripts have provided various anti-depressant remedies, which may be useful in depression management. This review has studied the bioactive compounds, underlying mechanisms, and treatment outcomes of the medicinal plants traditionally mentioned effective for depression from "The storehouse of medicament" (a famous pharmacopeia of TPM) to merge those with the novel genetics science and serve new scope in depression prevention and management. This review paper has been conducted in two sections: (1) Collecting medicinal plants and their bioactive components from "The storehouse of medicament," "Physician's Desk Reference (PDR) for Herbal Medicines," and "Google scholar" database. (2) The critical key factors and genes in depression pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment were clarified. Subsequently, the association between bioactive components' underlying mechanism and depression treatment outcomes via considering polymorphisms in related genes was derived. Taken together, α-Mangostin, β-carotene, β-pinene, apigenin, caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, citral, ellagic acid, esculetin, ferulic acid, gallic acid, gentiopicroside, hyperoside, kaempferol, limonene, linalool, lycopene, naringin, protocatechuic acid, quercetin, resveratrol, rosmarinic acid, and umbelliferone are suitable for future pharmacogenetics-based studies in the management of depression.

Adverse Maternal Environment Alters MicroRNA-10b-5p Expression and Its Epigenetic Profile Concurrently with Impaired Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Male Mouse Hippocampus

An adverse maternal environment (AME) predisposes adult offspring toward cognitive impairment in humans and mice. However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Epigenetic changes in response to environmental exposure may be critical drivers of this change. Epigenetic regulators, including microRNAs, have been shown to affect cognitive function by altering hippocampal neurogenesis which is regulated in part by brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF). We sought to investigate the effects of AME on miR profile and their epigenetic characteristics, as well as neurogenesis and BDNF expression in mouse hippocampus. Using our mouse model of AME which is composed of maternal Western diet and prenatal environmental stress, we found that AME significantly increased hippocampal miR-10b-5p levels. We also found that AME significantly decreased DNA methylation and increased accumulations of active histone marks H3 lysine (K) 4me3, H3K14ac, and -H3K36me3 at miR-10b promoter. Furthermore, AME significantly decreased hippocampal neurogenesis by decreasing cell numbers of Ki67+ (proliferation marker), NeuroD1+ (neuronal differentiation marker), and NeuN+ (mature neuronal marker) in the dentate gyrus (DG) region concurrently with decreased hippocampal BDNF protein levels. We speculate that the changes in epigenetic profile at miR-10b promoter may contribute to upregulation of miR-10b-5p and subsequently lead to decreased BDNF levels in a model of impaired offspring hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition in mice.

Pathophysiology linking depression and type 2 diabetes: Psychotherapy, physical exercise, and fecal microbiome transplantation as damage control

Diabetes increases the likelihood of developing depression and vice versa. Research on this bidirectional association has somewhat managed to delineate the interplay among implicated physiological processes. Still, further exploration is required in this context. This review addresses the comorbidity by investigating suspected common pathophysiological mechanisms. One such factor is psychological stress which disturbs the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis causing hormonal imbalance. This includes elevated cortisol levels, a common biomarker of both depression and diabetes. Disrupted insulin signaling drives the hampered neurotransmission of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Also, adipokine hormones such as adiponectin, leptin, and resistin and the orexigenic hormone, ghrelin, are involved in both depression and T2DM. This disarray further interferes with physiological processes encompassing sleep, the gut-brain axis, metabolism, and mood stability. Behavioral coping mechanisms, such as unhealthy eating, mediate disturbed glucose homeostasis, and neuroinflammation. This is intricately linked to oxidative stress, redox imbalance, and mitochondrial dysfunction. However, interventions such as psychotherapy, physical exercise, fecal microbiota transplantation, and insulin-sensitizing agents can help to manage the distressing condition. The possibility of glucagon-like peptide 1 possessing a therapeutic role has also been discussed. Nonetheless, there stands an urgent need for unraveling new correlating targets and biological markers for efficient treatment.