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Kim US, Mahroo OA, Mollon JD, Yu-Wai-Man P. Retinal Ganglion Cells-Diversity of Cell Types and Clinical Relevance. Front Neurol 2021; 12:661938. [PMID: 34093409 PMCID: PMC8175861 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.661938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the bridging neurons that connect the retinal input to the visual processing centres within the central nervous system. There is a remarkable diversity of RGCs and the various subtypes have unique morphological features, distinct functions, and characteristic pathways linking the inner retina to the relevant brain areas. A number of psychophysical and electrophysiological tests have been refined to investigate this large and varied population of RGCs. Technological advances, such as high-resolution optical coherence tomography imaging, have provided additional tools to define the pattern of RGC involvement and the chronological sequence of events in both inherited and acquired optic neuropathies. The mechanistic insights gained from these studies, in particular the selective vulnerability and relative resilience of particular RGC subtypes, are of fundamental importance as they are directly relevant to the development of targeted therapies for these invariably progressive blinding diseases. This review provides a comprehensive description of the various types of RGCs, the developments in proposed methods of classification, and the current gaps in our knowledge of how these RGCs are differentially affected depending on the underlying aetiology. The synthesis of the current body of knowledge on the diversity of RGCs and the pathways that are potentially amenable to therapeutic modulation will hopefully lead to much needed effective treatments for patients with optic neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ungsoo Samuel Kim
- Kim's Eye Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair and MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cambridge Eye Unit, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Ungsoo Samuel Kim
| | - Omar A. Mahroo
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Section of Ophthalmology, King's College London, St. Thomas' Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - John D. Mollon
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Yu-Wai-Man
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair and MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cambridge Eye Unit, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Yan L, Lonstein JS, Nunez AA. Light as a modulator of emotion and cognition: Lessons learned from studying a diurnal rodent. Horm Behav 2019; 111:78-86. [PMID: 30244030 PMCID: PMC6456444 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Light profoundly affects the behavior and physiology of almost all animals, including humans. One such effect in humans is that the level of illumination during the day positively contributes to affective well-being and cognitive function. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the effects of daytime light intensity on affect and cognition are poorly understood. One barrier for progress in this area is that almost all laboratory animal models studied are nocturnal. There are substantial differences in how light affects nocturnal and diurnal species, e.g., light induces sleep in nocturnal mammals but wakefulness in diurnal ones, like humans. Therefore, the mechanisms through which light modulates affect and cognition must differ between the chronotypes. To further understand the neural pathways mediating how ambient light modulates affect and cognition, our recent work has developed a diurnal rodent model, the Nile grass rat (Arvicanthis niloticus), in which daytime light intensity is chronically manipulated in grass rats housed under the same 12:12 hour light/dark cycle. This simulates lighting conditions during summer-like bright sunny days vs. winter-like dim cloudy days. Our work has revealed that chronic dim daylight intensity results in higher depression- and anxiety-like behaviors, as well as impaired spatial learning and memory. Furthermore, we have found that hypothalamic orexin is a mediator of these effects. A better understanding of how changes in daytime light intensity impinge upon the neural substrates involved in affect and cognition will lead to novel preventive and therapeutic strategies for seasonal affective disorder, as well as for non-seasonal emotional or cognitive impairments associated with light deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Yan
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| | - Joseph S Lonstein
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Antonio A Nunez
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Jacob SN, Nienborg H. Monoaminergic Neuromodulation of Sensory Processing. Front Neural Circuits 2018; 12:51. [PMID: 30042662 PMCID: PMC6048220 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2018.00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
All neuronal circuits are subject to neuromodulation. Modulatory effects on neuronal processing and resulting behavioral changes are most commonly reported for higher order cognitive brain functions. Comparatively little is known about how neuromodulators shape processing in sensory brain areas that provide the signals for downstream regions to operate on. In this article, we review the current knowledge about how the monoamine neuromodulators serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline influence the representation of sensory stimuli in the mammalian sensory system. We review the functional organization of the monoaminergic brainstem neuromodulatory systems in relation to their role for sensory processing and summarize recent neurophysiological evidence showing that monoamines have diverse effects on early sensory processing, including changes in gain and in the precision of neuronal responses to sensory inputs. We also highlight the substantial evidence for complementarity between these neuromodulatory systems with different patterns of innervation across brain areas and cortical layers as well as distinct neuromodulatory actions. Studying the effects of neuromodulators at various target sites is a crucial step in the development of a mechanistic understanding of neuronal information processing in the healthy brain and in the generation and maintenance of mental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon N Jacob
- Department of Neurosurgery, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Hendrikje Nienborg
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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Li X, Li X. The Antidepressant Effect of Light Therapy from Retinal Projections. Neurosci Bull 2018; 34:359-368. [PMID: 29430586 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-018-0210-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Observations from clinical trials have frequently demonstrated that light therapy can be an effective therapy for seasonal and non-seasonal major depression. Despite the fact that light therapy is known to have several advantages over antidepressant drugs like a low cost, minimal side-effects, and fast onset of therapeutic effect, the mechanism underlying light therapy remains unclear. So far, it is known that light therapy modulates mood states and cognitive functions, involving circadian and non-circadian pathways from retinas into brain. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic effect of light on major depression and its relationship to direct retinal projections in the brain. We finally emphasize the function of the retino-raphe projection in modulating serotonin activity, which probably underlies the antidepressant effect of light therapy for depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotao Li
- The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute for Collaborative Research of SIAT at CAS and the McGovern Institute at MIT, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China. .,McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Xiang Li
- The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute for Collaborative Research of SIAT at CAS and the McGovern Institute at MIT, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China.
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Ortiz G, Odom JV, Passaglia CL, Tzekov RT. Efferent influences on the bioelectrical activity of the retina in primates. Doc Ophthalmol 2016; 134:57-73. [PMID: 28032236 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-016-9567-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The existence of retinopetal (sometimes referred to as "efferent" or "centrifugal") axons in the mammalian optic nerve is a topic of long-standing debate. Opposition is fading as efferent innervation of the retina has now been widely documented in rodents and other animals. The existence and function of an efferent system in humans and non-human primates has not, though, been definitively established. Such a feedback pathway could have important functional, clinical, and experimental significance to the field of vision science and ophthalmology. METHODS Following a comprehensive literature review (PubMed and Google Scholar, until July 2016), we present evidence regarding a system that can influence the bioelectrical activity of the retina in primates. RESULTS Anatomical and physiological evidences are presented separately. Improvements in histological staining and the advent of retrograde nerve fiber tracers have allowed for more confidence in the identification of efferent optic nerve fibers, including back to their point of origin. CONCLUSION Even with the accumulation of more modern anatomical and physiological evidence, some limitations and uncertainties about crucial details regarding the origins and role of a top-down, efferent system still exist. However, the summary of the evidence from earlier and more modern studies makes a compelling case in support of such a system in humans and non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Ortiz
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - J Vernon Odom
- Department of Ophthalmology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Christopher L Passaglia
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Radouil T Tzekov
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., MDC 21, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA. .,The Roskamp Institute, Sarasota, FL, USA.
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Pickard GE, So KF, Pu M. Dorsal raphe nucleus projecting retinal ganglion cells: Why Y cells? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 57:118-31. [PMID: 26363667 PMCID: PMC4646079 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Retinal ganglion Y (alpha) cells are found in retinas ranging from frogs to mice to primates. The highly conserved nature of the large, fast conducting retinal Y cell is a testament to its fundamental task, although precisely what this task is remained ill-defined. The recent discovery that Y-alpha retinal ganglion cells send axon collaterals to the serotonergic dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) in addition to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), medial interlaminar nucleus (MIN), pretectum and the superior colliculus (SC) has offered new insights into the important survival tasks performed by these cells with highly branched axons. We propose that in addition to its role in visual perception, the Y-alpha retinal ganglion cell provides concurrent signals via axon collaterals to the DRN, the major source of serotonergic afferents to the forebrain, to dramatically inhibit 5-HT activity during orientation or alerting/escape responses, which dis-facilitates ongoing tonic motor activity while dis-inhibiting sensory information processing throughout the visual system. The new data provide a fresh view of these evolutionarily old retinal ganglion cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary E Pickard
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583, United States; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, United States; GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kwok-Fai So
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China; Department of Ophthalmology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China; State Key Laboratory for Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Mingliang Pu
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory on Machine Perception (Ministry of Education), Peking University, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory for Visual Impairment and Restoration (Ministry of Education), Peking University, Beijing, China.
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Intrinsic organization of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the capuchin monkey. Brain Res 2013; 1543:65-72. [PMID: 24161828 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 09/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is the main circadian biological clock in mammals, is composed of multiple cells that function individually as independent oscillators to express the self-sustained mRNA and protein rhythms of the so-called clock genes. Knowledge regarding the presence and localization of the proteins and neuroactive substances of the SCN are essential for understanding this nucleus and for its successful manipulation. Although there have been advances in the investigation of the intrinsic organization of the SCN in rodents, little information is available in diurnal species, especially in primates. This study, which explores the pattern of expression and localization of PER2 protein in the SCN of capuchin monkey, evaluates aspects of the circadian system that are common to both primates and rodents. Here, we showed that PER2 protein immunoreactivity is higher during the light phase. Additionally, the complex organization of cells that express vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, neuron-specific nuclear protein, calbindin and calretinin in the SCN, as demonstrated by their immunoreactivity, reveals an intricate network that may be related to the similarities and differences reported between rodents and primates in the literature.
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Flitcroft DI. The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology. Prog Retin Eye Res 2012; 31:622-60. [PMID: 22772022 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2012.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 456] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Revised: 06/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Myopia is the commonest ocular abnormality but as a research topic remains at the margins of mainstream ophthalmology. The concept that most myopes fall into the category of 'physiological myopia' undoubtedly contributes to this position. Yet detailed analysis of epidemiological data linking myopia with a range of ocular pathologies from glaucoma to retinal detachment demonstrates statistically significant disease association in the 0 to -6 D range of 'physiological myopia'. The calculated risks from myopia are comparable to those between hypertension, smoking and cardiovascular disease. In the case of myopic maculopathy and retinal detachment the risks are an order of magnitude greater. This finding highlights the potential benefits of interventions that can limit or prevent myopia progression. Our understanding of the regulatory processes that guide an eye to emmetropia and, conversely how the failure of such mechanisms can lead to refractive errors, is certainly incomplete but has grown enormously in the last few decades. Animal studies, observational clinical studies and more recently randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that the retinal image can influence the eye's growth. To date human intervention trials in myopia progression using optical means have had limited success but have been designed on the basis of simple hypotheses regarding the amount of defocus at the fovea. Recent animal studies, backed by observational clinical studies, have revealed that the mechanisms of optically guided eye growth are influenced by the retinal image across a wide area of the retina and not solely the fovea. Such results necessitate a fundamental shift in how refractive errors are defined. In the context of understanding eye growth a single sphero-cylindrical definition of foveal refraction is insufficient. Instead refractive error must be considered across the curved surface of the retina. This carries the consequence that local retinal image defocus can only be determined once the 3D structure of the viewed scene, off axis performance of the eye and eye shape has been accurately defined. This, in turn, introduces an under-appreciated level of complexity and interaction between the environment, ocular optics and eye shape that needs to be considered when planning and interpreting the results of clinical trials on myopia prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- D I Flitcroft
- Children's University Hospital, Temple Street, Dublin, Ireland.
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Tomita T, Yasui-Furukori N, Nakagami T, Kaneda A, Kaneko S. The association between sunshine duration and paroxetine response time in patients with major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 2012; 136:1067-71. [PMID: 22153922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2011] [Revised: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A recent study indicates that the serotonin transporter function varies with the duration of monthly sunshine. This finding may suggest that the efficacy of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) is associated with the duration of monthly sunshine, but information on this possible association is lacking. METHODS Ninety-one Japanese subjects with depression completed a 6-week treatment with paroxetine. Clinical evaluation was performed using the Montgomery and Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) before treatment and after 1, 2, 4 and 6 weeks of treatment. Data on the duration of monthly sunshine were obtained from the meteorological agency website. We divided the patients into four groups: nonresponders (NRs), later responders (LRs), early responders (ERs) and ultra-early responders (UERs). RESULTS The responses to paroxetine treatment of the group that began treatment in fall and winter and of the group that began treatment in spring and summer did not differ significantly. The effect of the duration of monthly sunshine on paroxetine response time did not differ significantly among the four groups, whereas the change in the duration of monthly sunshine had a significant effect on paroxetine response time. LIMITATIONS Our sample of patients with MDD was small and only included the Hirosaki area. CONCLUSION The change in the duration of monthly sunshine is associated with paroxetine response time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsu Tomita
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Hirosaki University, Hirosaki, Japan
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5-HT1B receptor in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Neurosci Lett 2011; 488:6-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.10.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Revised: 10/02/2010] [Accepted: 10/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Pinato L, Frazão R, Cruz-Rizzolo R, Cavalcante J, Nogueira M. Immunocytochemical characterization of the pregeniculate nucleus and distribution of retinal and neuropeptide Y terminals in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the Cebus monkey. J Chem Neuroanat 2009; 37:207-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Engelberth RCGJ, de Pontes ALB, do Nascimento RBS, de Lima RRM, de Lima RR, de Toledo CAB, de Oliveira Costa MSM, Britto LRG, de Souza Cavalcante J. Discrete retinal input to the parabrachial complex of a new-world primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Neurosci Lett 2008; 443:99-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.07.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2008] [Revised: 07/12/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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