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Chaudhary S, Parvez S. Neuroprotective Effects of Natural Antioxidants Against Branched-Chain Fatty Acid-Induced Oxidative Stress in Cerebral Cortex and Cerebellum Regions of the Rat Brain. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:38269-38276. [PMID: 36340064 PMCID: PMC9631910 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Valproic acid (VPA) is short branched-chain fatty acid (BCFA) derived from valeric acids which are naturally produced by Valeriana officinalis (flowering plant). Neurotoxicity caused by BCFA-like VPA may be mediated by oxidative stress, according to research involving the cerebral cortex and cerebellum. In the present study, we explored the possible protective effect of different antioxidants such as melatonin, quercetin, and piperine on VPA exposure by using a supernatant preparation of the cerebral cortex and cerebellum regions of the rat brain. The present study revealed that melatonin, quercetin, and piperine significantly prevented VPA-induced oxidative stress in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum regions. VPA was also observed to lower the level of reduced glutathione, and this effect was significantly mitigated by these antioxidants. Melatonin, quercetin, and piperine also ameliorated and altered the activities of AChE, Na+, K+ATPase, and MAO in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum. Results of this study also suggest that prior treatment of antioxidants like melatonin, quercetin, and piperine helps in combating the oxidative stress induced by VPA in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum region of the rat brain. Thus, sufficient dietary intake of these antioxidants by individuals at high risk of VPA exposure could prove beneficial in combating the adverse effect of VPA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suhel Parvez
- . Phone: +91 11 26059688x5573. Fax: +91 11 26059663
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Qi C, Zhang J, Wang Y, Lin M, Gao J, Lu H. Valproic acid enhances neurosphere formation in cultured rat embryonic cortical cells through TGFβ1 signaling. J Biomed Res 2022; 36:127-140. [PMID: 35387900 PMCID: PMC9002158 DOI: 10.7555/jbr.36.20210109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of valproic acid (VPA) on the neurosphere formation in rat embryonic cortical cells. We used free-floating neurosphere formation as a model system to evaluate the VPA on the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs). We found a time- and dose-dependent increase in neurosphere formation and NSC proliferation after VPA treatment. Further RNA-seq analysis demonstrated that the upregulated TGFβ1 signaling might attribute to the effect of VPA on the neurosphere formation and NSC proliferation. Consistently, the neurosphere formation and NSC proliferation were blocked by the treatment with SB431542, an inhibitor of TGFβ1 receptor. Moreover, in a coculture system, NSCs treated with VPA significantly reduced the oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced neuronal apoptosis. Taken together, our results showed that VPA could enhance neurosphere formation and NSC proliferation by activating TGFβ1, which might be a novel therapeutic strategy for neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Qi
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Mingyan Lin
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
| | - Jun Gao
- Department of Neurobiology, Key Laboratory of Human Functional Genomics of Jiangsu, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Jiangsu Shengze Hospital affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215228,China
- Jun Gao, Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, 101 Longmian Avenue, Jiangning District, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211166, China. Tel: +86-25-86869347, E-mail:
| | - Haiying Lu
- Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China
- Haiying Lu, Department of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 72 Guangzhou Road, GulouDistrict, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China. Tel: +86-25-83116827, E-mail:
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Cai NN, Geng Q, Jiang Y, Zhu WQ, Yang R, Zhang BY, Xiao YF, Tang B, Zhang XM. Schisandrin A and B affect the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells. J Chem Neuroanat 2021; 119:102058. [PMID: 34896558 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2021.102058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Schisandrin A and B (Sch A and B) are the important components of Asian dietary supplement and phytomedicine Schisandra chinensis (S. chinensis). They can enhance adult neurogenesis in vivo; however, these effects still need to be verified. Here NE-4 C neural stem cells (NSCs) were employed as the in vitro model and treated with Sch A and B at 0.1 μg/mL. EdU (5-Ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine) labeling showed that both Sch A and B treatments enhanced NSC proliferation. Real-time PCR analysis showed the mRNA abundances of telomerase gene Tert and cell cycle gene Cyclin D1 were significantly up-regulated after the treatments. During the neurosphere induction, Sch B enhanced the neurosphere formation and neuronal differentiation, and increased the neurosphere semidiameters. Detection of the neuron differentiation marker Mapt indicates that both Sch A and B, especially Sch B, benefits the induced neuronal differentiation. Sch B treatment also enhanced mRNA expressions of the neurosphere-specific adhesion molecule Cdh2 and Wnt pathway-related genes including Mmp9, Cyclin D1 and β-catenin. Together, Sch A especially Sch B, promotes the proliferation, affects the survival, differentiation and neurogenesis of NSCs, which is consistent with their in vivo effects. This study provides further clue on the potential neuropharmacological effects of S. chinensis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning-Ning Cai
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China; Hebei Key Lab of Laboratory Animal Science, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China.
| | - Qi Geng
- Hebei Key Lab of Laboratory Animal Science, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China
| | - Yu Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Wen-Qian Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Rui Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Bo-Yang Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yu-Feng Xiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Bo Tang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Xue-Ming Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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Harnessing the HDAC-histone deacetylase enzymes, inhibitors and how these can be utilised in tissue engineering. Int J Oral Sci 2019; 11:20. [PMID: 31201303 PMCID: PMC6572769 DOI: 10.1038/s41368-019-0053-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There are large knowledge gaps regarding how to control stem cells growth and differentiation. The limitations of currently available technologies, such as growth factors and/or gene therapies has led to the search of alternatives. We explore here how a cell’s epigenome influences determination of cell type, and potential applications in tissue engineering. A prevalent epigenetic modification is the acetylation of DNA core histone proteins. Acetylation levels heavily influence gene transcription. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes can remove these acetyl groups, leading to the formation of a condensed and more transcriptionally silenced chromatin. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) can inhibit these enzymes, resulting in the increased acetylation of histones, thereby affecting gene expression. There is strong evidence to suggest that HDACis can be utilised in stem cell therapies and tissue engineering, potentially providing novel tools to control stem cell fate. This review introduces the structure/function of HDAC enzymes and their links to different tissue types (specifically bone, cardiac, neural tissues), including the history, current status and future perspectives of using HDACis for stem cell research and tissue engineering, with particular attention paid to how different HDAC isoforms may be integral to this field.
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Transplanted Adult Neural Stem Cells Express Sonic Hedgehog In Vivo and Suppress White Matter Neuroinflammation after Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury. Stem Cells Int 2017; 2017:9342534. [PMID: 29081811 PMCID: PMC5610817 DOI: 10.1155/2017/9342534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) delivered intraventricularly may be therapeutic for diffuse white matter pathology after traumatic brain injury (TBI). To test this concept, NSCs isolated from adult mouse subventricular zone (SVZ) were transplanted into the lateral ventricle of adult mice at two weeks post-TBI followed by analysis at four weeks post-TBI. We examined sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling as a candidate mechanism by which transplanted NSCs may regulate neuroregeneration and/or neuroinflammation responses of endogenous cells. Mouse fluorescent reporter lines were generated to enable in vivo genetic labeling of cells actively transcribing Shh or Gli1 after transplantation and/or TBI. Gli1 transcription is an effective readout for canonical Shh signaling. In ShhCreERT2;R26tdTomato mice, Shh was primarily expressed in neurons and was not upregulated in reactive astrocytes or microglia after TBI. Corroborating results in Gli1CreERT2;R26tdTomato mice demonstrated that Shh signaling was not upregulated in the corpus callosum, even after TBI or NSC transplantation. Transplanted NSCs expressed Shh in vivo but did not increase Gli1 labeling of host SVZ cells. Importantly, NSC transplantation significantly reduced reactive astrogliosis and microglial/macrophage activation in the corpus callosum after TBI. Therefore, intraventricular NSC transplantation after TBI significantly attenuated neuroinflammation, but did not activate host Shh signaling via Gli1 transcription.
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Zanni G, Di Martino E, Omelyanenko A, Andäng M, Delle U, Elmroth K, Blomgren K. Lithium increases proliferation of hippocampal neural stem/progenitor cells and rescues irradiation-induced cell cycle arrest in vitro. Oncotarget 2016; 6:37083-97. [PMID: 26397227 PMCID: PMC4741917 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.5191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Radiotherapy in children causes debilitating cognitive decline, partly linked to impaired neurogenesis. Irradiation targets primarily cancer cells but also endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) leading to cell death or cell cycle arrest. Here we evaluated the effects of lithium on proliferation, cell cycle and DNA damage after irradiation of young NSPCs in vitro. NSPCs were treated with 1 or 3 mM LiCl and we investigated proliferation capacity (neurosphere volume and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation). Using flow cytometry, we analysed apoptosis (annexin V), cell cycle (propidium iodide) and DNA damage (γH2AX) after irradiation (3.5 Gy) of lithium-treated NSPCs. Lithium increased BrdU incorporation and, dose-dependently, the number of cells in replicative phase as well as neurosphere growth. Irradiation induced cell cycle arrest in G1 and G2/M phases. Treatment with 3 mM LiCl was sufficient to increase NSPCs in S phase, boost neurosphere growth and reduce DNA damage. Lithium did not affect the levels of apoptosis, suggesting that it does not rescue NSPCs committed to apoptosis due to accumulated DNA damage. Lithium is a very promising candidate for protection of the juvenile brain from radiotherapy and for its potential to thereby improve the quality of life for those children who survive their cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zanni
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elena Di Martino
- Center for Brain Repair and Rehabilitation, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Omelyanenko
- Karolinska Institute, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael Andäng
- Karolinska Institute, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Stockholm, Sweden.,Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ulla Delle
- Department of Oncology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kecke Elmroth
- Department of Oncology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Klas Blomgren
- Karolinska Institute, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Stockholm, Sweden
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Wong CT, Ussyshkin N, Ahmad E, Rai-Bhogal R, Li H, Crawford DA. Prostaglandin E2promotes neural proliferation and differentiation and regulates Wnt target gene expression. J Neurosci Res 2016; 94:759-75. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine T. Wong
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Netta Ussyshkin
- Department of Biology; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Eizaaz Ahmad
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Biology; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Ravneet Rai-Bhogal
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Biology; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Hongyan Li
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Dorota A. Crawford
- School of Kinesiology and Health Science; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Neuroscience Graduate Diploma Program; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
- Department of Biology; York University; Toronto Ontario Canada
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Cao WS, Livesey JC, Halliwell RF. An evaluation of a human stem cell line to identify risk of developmental neurotoxicity with antiepileptic drugs. Toxicol In Vitro 2015; 29:592-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2015.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Swaminathan A, Kumar M, Halder Sinha S, Schneider-Anthony A, Boutillier AL, Kundu TK. Modulation of neurogenesis by targeting epigenetic enzymes using small molecules: an overview. ACS Chem Neurosci 2014; 5:1164-77. [PMID: 25250644 DOI: 10.1021/cn500117a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurogenesis consists of a plethora of complex cellular processes including neural stem cell (NSC) proliferation, migration, maturation or differentiation to neurons, and finally integration into the pre-existing neural circuits in the brain, which are temporally regulated and coordinated sequentially. Mammalian neurogenesis begins during embryonic development and continues in postnatal brain (adult neurogenesis). It is now evident that adult neurogenesis is driven by extracellular and intracellular signaling pathways, where epigenetic modifications like reversible histone acetylation, methylation, as well as DNA methylation play a vital role. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression during neural development is governed mainly by histone acetyltransferases (HATs), histone methyltransferase (HMTs), DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), and also the enzymes for reversal, like histone deacetylases (HDACs), and many of these have also been shown to be involved in the regulation of adult neurogenesis. The contribution of these epigenetic marks to neurogenesis is increasingly being recognized, through knockout studies and small molecule modulator based studies. These small molecules are directly involved in regeneration and repair of neurons, and not only have applications from a therapeutic point of view, but also provide a tool to study the process of neurogenesis itself. In the present Review, we will focus on small molecules that act predominantly on epigenetic enzymes to enhance neurogenesis and neuroprotection and discuss the mechanism and recent advancements in their synthesis, targeting, and biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amrutha Swaminathan
- Transcription and
Disease Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur P.O, Bangalore-560064, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Transcription and
Disease Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur P.O, Bangalore-560064, India
| | - Sarmistha Halder Sinha
- Transcription and
Disease Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur P.O, Bangalore-560064, India
| | - Anne Schneider-Anthony
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences
Cognitives et Adaptatives (LNCA), UMR7364, Université de Strasbourg-CNRS,
GDR CNRS 2905, Faculté de Psychologie, 12 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Anne-Laurence Boutillier
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences
Cognitives et Adaptatives (LNCA), UMR7364, Université de Strasbourg-CNRS,
GDR CNRS 2905, Faculté de Psychologie, 12 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Tapas K Kundu
- Transcription and
Disease Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur P.O, Bangalore-560064, India
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Lee Y, Lee B, Lee CJ. Valproic acid decreases cell proliferation and migration in the cerebellum of zebrafish larvae. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2014.905491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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Lee Y, Kim YH, Yun JS, Lee CJ. Valproic acid decreases the proliferation of telencephalic cells in zebrafish larvae. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2013; 39:91-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 06/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Foti SB, Chou A, Moll AD, Roskams AJ. HDAC inhibitors dysregulate neural stem cell activity in the postnatal mouse brain. Int J Dev Neurosci 2013; 31:434-47. [PMID: 23542004 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2013.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) undergoes significant expansion postnatally, producing astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and inhibitory neurons to modulate the activity of neural circuits. This is coincident in humans with the emergence of pediatric epilepsy, a condition commonly treated with valproate/valproic acid (VPA), a potent inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs). The sequential activity of specific HDACs, however, may be essential for the differentiation of distinct subpopulations of neurons and glia. Here, we show that different subsets of CNS neural stem cells (NSCs) and progenitors switch expression of HDAC1 and HDAC2 as they commit to a neurogenic lineage in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and dentate gyrus (DG). The administration of VPA for only one week from P7-P14, combined with sequential injections of thymidine analogs reveals that VPA stimulates a significant and differential decrease in the production and differentiation of progeny of NSCs in the DG, rostral migratory stream (RMS), and olfactory bulb (OB). Cross-fostering VPA-treated mice revealed, however, that a postnatal failure to thrive induced by VPA treatment had a greater effect on DG neurogenesis than VPA action directly. By one month after VPA, OB interneuron genesis was significantly and differentially reduced in both periglomerular and granule neurons. Using neurosphere assays to test if VPA directly regulates NSC activity, we found that short term treatment with VPA in vivo reduced neurosphere numbers and size, a phenotype that was also obtained in neurospheres from control mice treated with VPA and an alternative HDAC inhibitor, Trichostatin A (TSA) at 0 and 3 days in vitro (DIV). Collectively, these data show that clinically used HDAC inhibitors like VPA and TSA can perturb postnatal neurogenesis; and their use should be carefully considered, especially in individuals whose brains are actively undergoing key postnatal time windows of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey Beth Foti
- Department of Zoology, Life Sciences Institute and Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
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An in vitro approach to assess the neurotoxicity of valproic acid-induced oxidative stress in cerebellum and cerebral cortex of young rats. Neuroscience 2012; 225:258-68. [PMID: 22960313 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.08.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Valproic acid (VPA), a branched short-chain fatty acid, is generally used as an antiepileptic drug and a mood stabilizer. VPA is a relatively safe drug, but its use in higher concentrations is associated with idiosyncratic neurotoxicity. Investigations involving cerebral cortex and cerebellum can shed light on whether neurotoxicity induced by branched chain fatty acids like VPA is mediated by oxidative stress. The aim of our investigation was to evaluate the neurotoxic potential of VPA by using preparation of cerebral cortex and cerebellum of young rats as an in vitro model. Oxidative stress indexes such as lipid peroxidation (LPO) and protein carbonyl (PC) formation were evaluated to visualize whether the first line of defence was breached. The levels of oxidative stress markers, LPO and PC were significantly elevated. Non-enzymatic antioxidants' effect was also demonstrated as a significant depletion in reduced glutathione (GSH) and non-protein thiol activity (NP-SH), but there was no significant increase or decrease in the concentrations of total thiol (T-SH) and protein thiol (P-SH). VPA also showed significant reduction in the activities of glutathione metabolizing enzymes such as glutathione-S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and other antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) in cerebellum and cerebral cortex. A significant elevation was also observed in the activity of xanthine oxidase (XO). Some neurotoxicity biomarkers were investigated in which the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and sodium-potassium ATPase (Na(+), K(+)-ATPase) was decreased and monoamine oxidase (MAO) was increased. These results indicate that VPA induces oxidative stress by compromising the antioxidant status of the neuronal tissue. Further studies are required to decipher the cellular and molecular mechanisms of branched chain fatty acid-induced neurotoxicity.
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