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Parvizi-Wayne D, Sandved-Smith L, Pitliya RJ, Limanowski J, Tufft MRA, Friston KJ. Forgetting ourselves in flow: an active inference account of flow states and how we experience ourselves within them. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1354719. [PMID: 38887627 PMCID: PMC11182004 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1354719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Flow has been described as a state of optimal performance, experienced universally across a broad range of domains: from art to athletics, gaming to writing. However, its phenomenal characteristics can, at first glance, be puzzling. Firstly, individuals in flow supposedly report a loss of self-awareness, even though they perform in a manner which seems to evince their agency and skill. Secondly, flow states are felt to be effortless, despite the prerequisite complexity of the tasks that engender them. In this paper, we unpick these features of flow, as well as others, through the active inference framework, which posits that action and perception are forms of active Bayesian inference directed at sustained self-organisation; i.e., the minimisation of variational free energy. We propose that the phenomenology of flow is rooted in the deployment of high precision weight over (i) the expected sensory consequences of action and (ii) beliefs about how action will sequentially unfold. This computational mechanism thus draws the embodied cognitive system to minimise the ensuing (i.e., expected) free energy through the exploitation of the pragmatic affordances at hand. Furthermore, given the challenging dynamics the flow-inducing situation presents, attention must be wholly focussed on the unfolding task whilst counterfactual planning is restricted, leading to the attested loss of the sense of self-as-object. This involves the inhibition of both the sense of self as a temporally extended object and higher-order, meta-cognitive forms of self-conceptualisation. Nevertheless, we stress that self-awareness is not entirely lost in flow. Rather, it is pre-reflective and bodily. Our approach to bodily-action-centred phenomenology can be applied to similar facets of seemingly agentive experience beyond canonical flow states, providing insights into the mechanisms of so-called selfless experiences, embodied expertise and wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darius Parvizi-Wayne
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lars Sandved-Smith
- Monash Centre for Consciousness and Contemplative Studies, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Riddhi J. Pitliya
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- VERSES AI Research Lab, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jakub Limanowski
- Institute of Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Miles R. A. Tufft
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Karl J. Friston
- VERSES AI Research Lab, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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2
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Rosen D, Oh Y, Chesebrough C, Zhang FZ, Kounios J. Creative flow as optimized processing: Evidence from brain oscillations during jazz improvisations by expert and non-expert musicians. Neuropsychologia 2024; 196:108824. [PMID: 38387554 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Using a creative production task, jazz improvisation, we tested alternative hypotheses about the flow experience: (A) that it is a state of domain-specific processing optimized by experience and characterized by minimal interference from task-negative default-mode network (DMN) activity versus (B) that it recruits domain-general task-positive DMN activity supervised by the fronto-parietal control network (FPCN) to support ideation. We recorded jazz guitarists' electroencephalograms (EEGs) while they improvised to provided chord sequences. Their flow-states were measured with the Core Flow State Scale. Flow-related neural sources were reconstructed using SPM12. Over all musicians, high-flow (relative to low-flow) improvisations were associated with transient hypofrontality. High-experience musicians' high-flow improvisations showed reduced activity in posterior DMN nodes. Low-experience musicians showed no flow-related DMN or FPCN modulation. High-experience musicians also showed modality-specific left-hemisphere flow-related activity while low-experience musicians showed modality-specific right-hemisphere flow-related deactivations. These results are consistent with the idea that creative flow represents optimized domain-specific processing enabled by extensive practice paired with reduced cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Rosen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel University, United States.
| | - Yongtaek Oh
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel University, United States.
| | | | - Fengqing Zoe Zhang
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel University, United States.
| | - John Kounios
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel University, United States.
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3
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Reich N, Mannino M, Kotler S. Using caffeine as a chemical means to induce flow states. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 159:105577. [PMID: 38331128 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Flow is an intrinsically rewarding state characterised by positive affect and total task absorption. Because cognitive and physical performance are optimal in flow, chemical means to facilitate this state are appealing. Caffeine, a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist, has been emphasized as a potential flow-inducer. Thus, we review the psychological and biological effects of caffeine that, conceptually, enhance flow. Caffeine may facilitate flow through various effects, including: i) upregulation of dopamine D1/D2 receptor affinity in reward-associated brain areas, leading to greater energetic arousal and 'wanting'; ii) protection of dopaminergic neurons; iii) increases in norepinephrine release and alertness, which offset sleep-deprivation and hypoarousal; iv) heightening of parasympathetic high frequency heart rate variability, resulting in improved cortical stress appraisal, v) modification of striatal endocannabinoid-CB1 receptor-signalling, leading to enhanced stress tolerance; and vi) changes in brain network activity in favour of executive function and flow. We also discuss the application of caffeine to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and caveats. We hope to inspire studies assessing the use of caffeine to induce flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Reich
- Faculty of Health and Medicine, Biomedical & Life Sciences Division, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK; The ALBORADA Drug Discovery Institute, University of Cambridge, Island Research Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK.
| | - Michael Mannino
- Flow Research Collective, USA; Miami Dade College, Miami, FL, USA
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Kotler S, Mannino M, Kelso S, Huskey R. First few seconds for flow: A comprehensive proposal of the neurobiology and neurodynamics of state onset. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 143:104956. [PMID: 36368525 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Flow is a cognitive state that manifests when there is complete attentional absorption while performing a task. Flow occurs when certain internal as well as external conditions are present, including intense concentration, a sense of control, feedback, and a balance between the challenge of the task and the relevant skillset. Phenomenologically, flow is accompanied by a loss of self-consciousness, seamless integration of action and awareness, and acute changes in time perception. Research has begun to uncover some of the neurophysiological correlates of flow, as well as some of the state's neuromodulatory processes. We comprehensively review this work and consider the neurodynamics of the onset of the state, considering large-scale brain networks, as well as dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and endocannabinoid systems. To accomplish this, we outline an evidence-based hypothetical situation, and consider the flow state in a broader context including other profound alterations in consciousness, such as the psychedelic state and the state of traumatic stress that can induce PTSD. We present a broad theoretical framework which may motivate future testable hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Scott Kelso
- Human Brain & Behavior Laboratory, Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, United States; Intelligent Systems Research Centre, Ulster University, Derry∼Londonderry, North Ireland
| | - Richard Huskey
- Cognitive Communication Science Lab, Department of Communication, University of California Davis, United States; Cognitive Science Program, University of California Davis, United States; Center for Mind and Brain, University of California Davis, United States.
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5
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Ju U. Identifying neural correlates of multidimensional, subjective gaming experiences during active gameplay. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:1013991. [PMID: 36393987 PMCID: PMC9651959 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.1013991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Studying how gaming experiences are encoded is important to understand the effects of gaming on the brain. Although studies have investigated neural correlates of gaming experiences, the brain patterns related to the full range of subjective experiences across different types of games are yet to be identified. The present study used three custom-made, immersive driving games with different input dynamics (controlling a car, a boat, or a spaceship) and different mechanics to assess subjective gaming experiences in a magnetic resonance imaging scanner. A correlational analysis identified several brain networks associated with different subjective gaming experiences, including visual and attentional processing networks. The contributions of these networks were further validated using meta-analysis-based functional term decoding. The results of the present study point to a range of perceptual, motivational, and control networks that are engaged during active gameplay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uijong Ju
- HXR Lab, Department of Information Display, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
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6
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Alameda C, Sanabria D, Ciria LF. The brain in flow: A systematic review on the neural basis of the flow state. Cortex 2022; 154:348-364. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Peifer C, Wolters G, Harmat L, Heutte J, Tan J, Freire T, Tavares D, Fonte C, Andersen FO, van den Hout J, Šimleša M, Pola L, Ceja L, Triberti S. A Scoping Review of Flow Research. Front Psychol 2022; 13:815665. [PMID: 35465560 PMCID: PMC9022035 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.815665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Flow is a gratifying state of deep involvement and absorption that individuals report when facing a challenging activity and they perceive adequate abilities to cope with it (EFRN, 2014). The flow concept was introduced by Csikszentmihalyi in 1975, and interest in flow research is growing. However, to our best knowledge, no scoping review exists that takes a systematic look at studies on flow which were published between the years 2000 and 2016. Overall, 252 studies have been included in this review. Our review (1) provides a framework to cluster flow research, (2) gives a systematic overview about existing studies and their findings, and (3) provides an overview about implications for future research. The provided framework consists of three levels of flow research. In the first “Individual” level are the categories for personality, motivation, physiology, emotion, cognition, and behavior. The second “Contextual” level contains the categories for contextual and interindividual factors and the third “Cultural” level contains cultural factors that relate to flow. Using our framework, we systematically present the findings for each category. While flow research has made progress in understanding flow, in the future, more experimental and longitudinal studies are needed to gain deeper insights into the causal structure of flow and its antecedents and consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Peifer
- Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Gina Wolters
- Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - László Harmat
- Department of Psychology, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden
| | - Jean Heutte
- ULR 4354 - CIREL - Centre Interuniversitaire de Recherche en Education de Lille, Université de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Jasmine Tan
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Teresa Freire
- School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | | | - Carla Fonte
- Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Jef van den Hout
- Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Milija Šimleša
- Institute of Psychology Henri Pieron, Université Paris 5 René Descartes, Paris, France
| | - Linda Pola
- Department of Cultural Heritage and Environment, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Lucia Ceja
- IESE Business School, University of Navarra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stefano Triberti
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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8
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Arshad F, Clark L. Immersion in Substance-Related and Behavioural Addictions: Neural Systems and Neurochemical Substrates. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-021-00242-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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9
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Eschmann KCJ, Riedel L, Mecklinger A. Theta Neurofeedback Training Supports Motor Performance and Flow Experience. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2021; 6:434-450. [PMID: 35966366 PMCID: PMC9360146 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-021-00236-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Flow is defined as a cognitive state that is associated with a feeling of automatic and effortless control, enabling peak performance in highly challenging situations. In sports, flow can be enhanced by mindfulness training, which has been associated with frontal theta activity (4-8 Hz). Moreover, frontal-midline theta oscillations were shown to subserve control processes in a large variety of cognitive tasks. Based on previous theta neurofeedback training studies, which revealed that one training session is sufficient to enhance motor performance, the present study investigated whether one 30-minute session of frontal-midline theta neurofeedback training (1) enhances flow experience additionally to motor performance in a finger tapping task, and (2) transfers to cognitive control processes in an n-back task. Participants, who were able to successfully upregulate their theta activity during neurofeedback training (responders), showed better motor performance and flow experience after training than participants, who did not enhance their theta activity (non-responders). Across all participants, increase of theta activity during training was associated with motor performance enhancement from pretest to posttest irrespective of pre-training performance. Interestingly, theta training gains were also linked to the increase of flow experience, even when corresponding increases in motor performance were controlled for. Results for the n-back task were not significant. Even though these findings are mainly correlational in nature and additional flow-promoting influences need to be investigated, the present findings suggest that frontal-midline theta neurofeedback training is a promising tool to support flow experience with additional relevance for performance enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin C. J. Eschmann
- Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC), School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Lisa Riedel
- Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Faculty of Sport Science, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Axel Mecklinger
- Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
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10
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Gold J, Ciorciari J. A neurocognitive model of flow states and the role of cerebellar internal models. Behav Brain Res 2021; 407:113244. [PMID: 33744335 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper conceptualizes a comprehensive body of neurocognitive knowledge of flow states based on two primary competing neurocognitive theories underpinning flow's purported functioning, the transient hypofrontality hypothesis and the network synchronization model. With these models in mind, a new neurocognitive model of flow is synthesized based on the similarities of these pre-existing theories and utilizing the internal models of the cerebellum to elucidate the differences and crossover in the current flow research. Ultimately, this paper works to provide a platform for researchers to use as a future reference and for hypothesis generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Gold
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne Neuroimaging (SNI), Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia.
| | - Joseph Ciorciari
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC, Australia
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11
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Lim LG, Ung WC, Chan YL, Lu CK, Funane T, Kiguchi M, Tang TB. Optimizing Mental Workload Estimation by Detecting Baseline State Using Vector Phase Analysis Approach. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2021; 29:597-606. [PMID: 33625987 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2021.3062117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Improper baseline return from the previous task-evoked hemodynamic response (HR) can contribute to a large variation in the subsequent HR, affecting the estimation of mental workload in brain-computer interface systems. In this study, we proposed a method using vector phase analysis to detect the baseline state as being optimal or suboptimal. We hypothesize that selecting neuronal-related HR as observed in the optimal-baseline blocks can lead to an improvement in estimating mental workload. Oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin concentration changes were integrated as parts of the vector phase. The proposed method was applied to a block-design functional near-infrared spectroscopy dataset (total blocks = 1384), measured on 24 subjects performing multiple difficulty levels of mental arithmetic task. Significant differences in hemodynamic signal change were observed between the optimal- and suboptimal-baseline blocks detected using the proposed method. This supports the effectiveness of the proposed method in detecting baseline state for better estimation of mental workload. The results further highlight the need of customized recovery duration. In short, the proposed method offers a practical approach to detect task-evoked signals, without the need of extra probes.
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12
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Khoshnoud S, Alvarez Igarzábal F, Wittmann M. Peripheral-physiological and neural correlates of the flow experience while playing video games: a comprehensive review. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10520. [PMID: 33384898 PMCID: PMC7751419 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The flow state is defined by intense involvement in an activity with high degrees of concentration and focused attention accompanied by a sense of pleasure. Video games are effective tools for inducing flow, and keeping players in this state is considered to be one of the central goals of game design. Many studies have focused on the underlying physiological and neural mechanisms of flow. Results are inconsistent when describing a unified mechanism underlying this mental state. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the physiological and neural correlates of flow and explains the relationship between the reported physiological and neural markers of the flow experience. Despite the heterogeneous results, it seems possible to establish associations between reported markers and the cognitive and experiential aspects of flow, particularly regarding arousal, attention control, reward processing, automaticity, and self-referential processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiva Khoshnoud
- Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Marc Wittmann
- Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health, Freiburg, Germany
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13
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Kober SE, Wood G, Kiili K, Moeller K, Ninaus M. Game-based learning environments affect frontal brain activity. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242573. [PMID: 33211780 PMCID: PMC7676717 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Inclusion of game elements in learning environments to increase motivation and learning outcome is becoming increasingly popular. However, underlying mechanisms of game-based learning have not been studied sufficiently yet. In the present study, we investigated effects of game-based learning environments on a neurofunctional level. In particular, 59 healthy adults completed a game-based version (including game elements such as a narrative and virtual incentives) as well as a non-game-based version of a number line estimation task, to improve fractional knowledge, while their brain activity was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy. Behavioral performance was comparable across the two versions, although there was a tendency that less errors were made in the game-based version. However, subjective user experience differed significantly between versions. Participants rated the game-based version as more attractive, novel, and stimulating but less efficient than the non-game-based version. Additionally, positive affect was reported to be higher while engaging in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based task version. Corroborating these user reports, we identified increased brain activation in areas associated with emotion and reward processing while playing the game-based version, which might be driven by rewarding elements of the game-based version. Moreover, frontal areas associated with attention were also more activated in the game-based version of the task. Hence, we observed converging evidence on a user experience and neurofunctional level indicating that the game-based version was more rewarding as well as emotionally and attentionally engaging. These results underscore the potential of game-based learning environments to promote more efficient learning by means of attention and reward up-tuning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Erika Kober
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- * E-mail:
| | - Guilherme Wood
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Kristian Kiili
- Faculty of Education and Culture, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Korbinian Moeller
- Centre for Mathematical Cognition, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
- LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, Eberhard-Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Manuel Ninaus
- Centre for Mathematical Cognition, School of Science, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
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14
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Balanced difficulty task finder: an adaptive recommendation method for learning tasks based on the concept of state of flow. Cogn Neurodyn 2020; 14:675-687. [PMID: 33014180 PMCID: PMC7501397 DOI: 10.1007/s11571-020-09624-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
An adaptive task difficulty assignment method which we reckon as balanced difficulty task finder (BDTF) is proposed in this paper. The aim is to recommend tasks to a learner using a trade-off between skills of the learner and difficulty of the tasks such that the learner experiences a state of flow during the learning. Flow is a mental state that psychologists refer to when someone is completely immersed in an activity. Flow state is a multidisciplinary field of research and has been studied not only in psychology, but also neuroscience, education, sport, and games. The idea behind this paper is to try to achieve a flow state in a similar way as Elo’s chess skill rating (Glickman in Am Chess J 3:59–102) and TrueSkill (Herbrich et al. in Advances in neural information processing systems, 2006) for matching game players, where “matched players” should possess similar capabilities and skills in order to maintain the level of motivation and involvement in the game. The BDTF draws analogy between choosing an appropriate opponent or appropriate game level and automatically choosing an appropriate difficulty level of a learning task. This method, as an intelligent tutoring system, could be used in a wide range of applications from online learning environments and e-learning, to learning and remembering techniques in traditional methods such as adjusting delayed matching to sample and spaced retrieval training that can be used for people with memory problems such as people with dementia.
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Lim LG, Ung WC, Chan YL, Lu CK, Sutoko S, Funane T, Kiguchi M, Tang TB. A Unified Analytical Framework With Multiple fNIRS Features for Mental Workload Assessment in the Prefrontal Cortex. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2020; 28:2367-2376. [PMID: 32986555 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2020.3026991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Knowing the actual level of mental workload is important to ensure the efficacy of brain-computer interface (BCI) based cognitive training. Extracting signals from limited area of a brain region might not reveal the actual information. In this study, a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) device equipped with multi-channel and multi-distance measurement capability was employed for the development of an analytical framework to assess mental workload in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). In addition to the conventional features, e.g. hemodynamic slope, we introduced a new feature - deep contribution ratio which is the proportion of cerebral hemodynamics to the fNIRS signals. Multiple sets of features were examined by a simple logical operator to suppress the false detection rate in identifying the activated channels. Using the number of activated channels as input to a linear support vector machine (SVM), the performance of the proposed analytical framework was assessed in classifying three levels of mental workload. The best set of features involves the combination of hemodynamic slope and deep contribution ratio, where the identified number of activated channels returned an average accuracy of 80.6% in predicting mental workload, compared to a single conventional feature (accuracy: 59.8%). This suggests the feasibility of the proposed analytical framework with multiple features as a means towards a more accurate assessment of mental workload in fNIRS-based BCI applications.
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16
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Holzinger B, Mayer L. Lucid Dreaming Brain Network Based on Tholey's 7 Klartraum Criteria. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1885. [PMID: 32849106 PMCID: PMC7403396 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lucid dreaming refers to a dream state characterized by the dreamers’ awareness of being in a dream and being able to volitionally control its content. The aim of this study was to describe and model neurophysiological evidence for the seven awareness criteria of lucid dreaming based on those proposed by Paul Tholey. Each of the awareness criteria was analyzed separately with regard to its underlying neurocircuits. We hypothesized that not one, but several regions are involved in the state of lucid dreaming. Our results have shown a satisfactory overlap of the awareness criteria and the brain regions activated. During lucid dreaming, a brain network seems to emerge, that is something other than the sum of its parts. Further research is needed to understand the psychoneurological underpinnings of lucid dreams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Holzinger
- Institute for Consciousness and Dream Research, Vienna, Austria.,Certificate Program Sleep Coaching, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lucille Mayer
- Institute for Consciousness and Dream Research, Vienna, Austria
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17
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All to play for: LEGO® SERIOUS PLAY® and its impact on team cohesion, collaboration and psychological safety in organisational settings using a coaching approach. JOURNAL OF WORK-APPLIED MANAGEMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1108/jwam-03-2020-0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PurposeCollaboration and psychological safety are key factors to effective teams. LEGO® SERIOUS PLAY® (LSP) has emerged over the past decade as a development tool used in both educational and workplace settings for a range of purposes. In this study, the authors sought to investigate the impact of the experience of participating in a LSP away-day on the collaboration and psychological safety of the participants.Design/methodology/approachIn this study the subjective experience of participants of LSP workshop awaydays using a coaching approach were examined through interpretative phenomenological analysis. Members of two teams were invited to participate in team awaydays and approximately six weeks later, they were invited to share their reflections on the experience and its impact on team relationships and team performance.FindingsThe interviews revealed that participants' felt experience of engaging with LSP was positive, created closer bonds within the team and a better understanding of each other and the challenges which the team were facing. Participants reported a tangible change in the way they are collaborating and engaging not only just with fellow participants but also with other colleagues.Originality/valueThe experience of the participants in this study supports the view that LSP can have a positive role to play in developing psychological safety and collaboration in organisational teams and that there was a lasting impact on group norms which was sustained after the event.
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Castillo-Rodríguez A, Lopera CU, Onetti-Onetti W, Chinchilla-Minguet JL. How and why do young soccer players change the Flow State? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233002. [PMID: 32407413 PMCID: PMC7224521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Flow State (FS) as well as other psychological characteristics influence sports performance (SP) and could be relevant according to the playing position in team sports, such as the soccer where players have different specific functions within the team. The aim of this study was to evaluate the difference in FS dimensions in young soccer players between training time (TR) and official competition time (CM), according to the playing position and, to find relationships between FS dimensions and physical characteristics and academic performance. A total of 141 U16 soccer players were selected (14.7 ± 0.5 years). Data was collected for academic performance, physical and socio-demographic characteristics, and on two occasions, the dimensions of FS (before of a TR and CM). The results showed that the FS dimensions are higher before of the TR than before of the CM (p < 0.05) in all playing positions. In clear goals dimension, forwards showed lower scores than other playing positions, and various dimensions had a positive relationship with academic performance. In conclusion, the FS presented in CM is lower in U16 soccer players compared to that presented in TR. This work has contributed to increasing the knowledge of the fluctuation of the FS that negatively influence the soccer player in pre-competition states and the influence of various factors on this construct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Castillo-Rodríguez
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- * E-mail: (ACR); (WOO)
| | | | - Wanesa Onetti-Onetti
- UNIR, Universidad Internacional de la Rioja, Logroño, España
- * E-mail: (ACR); (WOO)
| | - José Luis Chinchilla-Minguet
- Department of the Languages, Arts and Sport Didactic, Universidad de Malaga, Andalucía-Tech, IBIMA, Malaga, Spain
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Your Focus Is Your Reality: Helping Interventionalists Achieve the Flow State. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2020; 31:676-677. [PMID: 32200947 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvir.2019.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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20
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Tavares D, Freire T, Faria S. Internal and External Factors Underlying Variations in Adolescents' Daily Optimal Experiences. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2020; 30:266-284. [PMID: 31246377 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated how the internal psychological states (i.e., challenge-skill perception, positive and negative affect, and effortless attention) and contextual features (i.e., activity and company) of momentary experiences relate to optimal experience in adolescents' lives. Data were collected from 245 Portuguese adolescents (14-19 years old, 63% female) by using the experience sampling method. Multilevel modeling revealed that challenge-skill and positive affect were positively associated with optimal experience, while negative affect was negatively associated with optimal experience. Effortless attention mediated the associations between internal states and optimal experience, while activity and company only moderated some of these associations. These findings will inform practitioners about the factors that should be addressed in interventions with adolescents to promote optimal experiences in their lives.
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Salehzadeh Niksirat K, Park K, Silpasuwanchai C, Wang Z, Ren X. The relationship between flow proneness in everyday life and variations in the volume of gray matter in the dopaminergic system: A cross-sectional study. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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22
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Ju U, Wallraven C. Manipulating and decoding subjective gaming experience during active gameplay: a multivariate, whole-brain analysis. Neuroimage 2019; 188:1-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.11.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Yoshida K, Ogawa K, Mototani T, Inagaki Y, Sawamura D, Ikoma K, Sakai S. Flow experience enhances the effectiveness of attentional training: A pilot randomized controlled trial of patients with attention deficits after traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation 2018; 43:183-193. [PMID: 30040757 DOI: 10.3233/nre-172396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flow is an optimal psychological state when people engage in a training task, and it is a theory explaining the absorbed state. OBJECTIVE To investigate the additional effect of flow on attention deficits for chronic patients after traumatic brain injury. METHODS Twenty patients were randomly assigned to the flow group (n = 10) or the control group. Patients performed a video game task, one inducing flow (flow group) and the other not (control group) for 4 weeks, and they were assessed with the flow state scale for occupational tasks (FSSOT) regularly and neuropsychological tests at baseline, after intervention, and at 4 weeks after intervention (follow-up). RESULTS Although both groups significantly improved their attentional function after intervention, patients in the flow group tended to show more improvement of attention. The effect size of the neuropsychological test of attention was positive, and its value was small to medium. There was a significant positive correlation between improvement of attention and the FSSOT score. CONCLUSIONS Attention training with induction of the flow was associated with greater improvement of attention. The results of this study may provide provisional evidence of the effectiveness of rehabilitation considering the patient's psychological state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Yoshida
- Department of Functioning and Disability, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Keita Ogawa
- Department of Rehabilitation, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Takuroh Mototani
- Department of Rehabilitation, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yuji Inagaki
- Department of Rehabilitation, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sawamura
- Department of Occupational Therapy, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Katsunori Ikoma
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Hokkaido University Hospital, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Shinya Sakai
- Department of Functioning and Disability, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Michailidis L, Balaguer-Ballester E, He X. Flow and Immersion in Video Games: The Aftermath of a Conceptual Challenge. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1682. [PMID: 30233477 PMCID: PMC6134042 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most pleasurable aspects of video games is their ability to induce immersive experiences. However, there appears to be a tentative conceptualization of what an immersive experience is. In this short review, we specifically focus on the terms of flow and immersion, as they are the most widely used and applied definitions in the video game literature, whilst their differences remain disputable. We critically review the concepts separately and proceed with a comparison on their proposed differences. We conclude that immersion and flow do not substantially differ in current studies and that more evidence is needed to justify their separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lazaros Michailidis
- Bournemouth University, Centre for Digital Entertainment, Department of Media and Communication, Bournemouth, United Kingdom.,Sony Interactive Entertainment, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emili Balaguer-Ballester
- Bournemouth University, Department of Computing and Informatics, Bournemouth, United Kingdom.,Bernstein Centre for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg-Mannheim, Manheim, Germany
| | - Xun He
- Bournemouth University, Department of Psychology, Bournemouth, United Kingdom
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Li Y, Zhang L, Long K, Gong H, Lei H. Real-time monitoring prefrontal activities during online video game playing by functional near-infrared spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2018; 11:e201700308. [PMID: 29451742 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201700308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A growing body of literature has suggested that video game playing can induce functional and structural plasticity of the brain. The underlying mechanisms, however, remain poorly understood. In this study, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to record prefrontal activities in 24 experienced game players when they played a massively multiplayer online battle arena video game, League of Legends (LOL), under naturalistic conditions. It was observed that game onset was associated with significant activations in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and concomitant deactivations in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and frontal pole area (FPA). Game events, such as slaying an enemy and being slain by an enemy evoked region-specific time-locked hemodynamic/oxygenation responses in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It was proposed that the VLPFC activities during LOL playing are likely responses to visuo-motor task load of the game, while the DLPFC/FPA activities may be involved in the constant shifts of attentional states and allocation of cognitive resources required by game playing. The present study demonstrated that it is feasible to use fNIRS to monitor real-time prefrontal activity during online video game playing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Li
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Kehong Long
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Hui Gong
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Hao Lei
- Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan 430071, China
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Does intrinsic reward motivate cognitive control? a naturalistic-fMRI study based on the synchronization theory of flow. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 18:902-924. [DOI: 10.3758/s13415-018-0612-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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27
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Weber R, Alicea B, Huskey R, Mathiak K. Network Dynamics of Attention During a Naturalistic Behavioral Paradigm. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:182. [PMID: 29780313 PMCID: PMC5946671 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the dynamics of attention during continuous, naturalistic interactions in a video game. Specifically, the effect of repeated distraction on a continuous primary task is related to a functional model of network connectivity. We introduce the Non-linear Attentional Saturation Hypothesis (NASH), which predicts that effective connectivity within attentional networks increases non-linearly with decreasing distraction over time, and exhibits dampening at critical parameter values. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data collected using a naturalistic behavioral paradigm coupled with an interactive video game is used to test the hypothesis. As predicted, connectivity in pre-defined regions corresponding to attentional networks increases as distraction decreases. Moreover, the functional relationship between connectivity and distraction is convex, that is, network connectivity somewhat increases as distraction decreases during the continuous primary task, however, connectivity increases considerably as distraction falls below critical levels. This result characterizes the non-linear pattern of connectivity within attentional networks, particularly with respect to their dynamics during behavior. These results are also summarized in the form of a network structure analysis, which underscores the role of various nodes in regulating the global network state. In conclusion, we situate the implications of this research in the context of cognitive complexity and an emerging theory of flow during media exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Weber
- Media Neuroscience Lab, Department of Communication, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Bradly Alicea
- Orthogonal Research and Teaching Laboratory, Champaign, IL, United States
| | - Richard Huskey
- Cognitive Communication Science Lab, School of Communication, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Klaus Mathiak
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Flow experience and the mobilization of attentional resources. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 18:810-823. [DOI: 10.3758/s13415-018-0606-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Tsuchiya K, Mitsui S, Fukuyama R, Yamaya N, Fujita T, Shimoda K, Tozato F. An acute bout of housework activities has beneficial effects on executive function. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2018; 14:61-72. [PMID: 29339923 PMCID: PMC5746069 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s153813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Although acute bouts of exercise reportedly have beneficial effects on executive function, inactive people may find it difficult to start exercising. In this study, we focused on housework activities (HAs) that generate a sense of accomplishment and require a mild intensity of physical activity. We examined the impact of an acute bout of HA on executive function and oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) flow to related cortical regions. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty-five participants (age, 18-21 years; mean, 19.88±0.60 years; six males and 19 females) underwent two experiments, ie, HA and control experiments, which were conducted on different days. Participants vacuumed a dirty floor in the HA experiment and mimicked the same motion with an unplugged vacuum cleaner on a clean floor in the control experiment. RESULTS Heart rate recorded during the experiments showed no significant difference in the intensity of physical activity between control and HA groups. A questionnaire revealed a sense of accomplishment after completing the HA experiment. Participants performed the Stroop color-word task (SCWT) pre- and post-experiments; cortical hemodynamic changes were simultaneously monitored using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Variation in Stroop interference scores for SCWT total response between pre- and post-experiments was signifi-cantly higher in the HA group than in the control group, and that for SCWT correct response showed a similar trend. Variation in the Stroop interference score for oxy-Hb flow to the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (R-VLPFC) showed the same trend. CONCLUSION Thus, HAs may have a greater beneficial effect on executive function than other physical activities through the activation of PFC, including R-VLPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Tsuchiya
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Gunma University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Gunma
| | - Shinichi Mitsui
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Gunma University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Gunma
| | - Ryuji Fukuyama
- Department of Rehabilitation, Gunma Seishi Ryougoen, Gunma
| | - Noriki Yamaya
- Department of Health Sciences, Gunma University School of Medicine, Gunma
| | - Takaaki Fujita
- Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kaori Shimoda
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Gunma University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Gunma
| | - Fusae Tozato
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Gunma University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Gunma
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Harris DJ, Vine SJ, Wilson MR. Neurocognitive mechanisms of the flow state. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2017; 234:221-243. [PMID: 29031465 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
While the experience of flow is often described in attentional terms-focused concentration or task absorption-specific cognitive mechanisms have received limited interest. We propose that an attentional explanation provides the best way to advance theoretical models and produce practical applications, as well as providing potential solutions to core issues such as how an objectively difficult task can be subjectively effortless. Recent research has begun to utilize brain-imaging techniques to investigate neurocognitive changes during flow, which enables attentional mechanisms to be understood in greater detail. Some tensions within flow research are discussed; including the dissociation between psychophysiological and experiential measures, and the equivocal neuroimaging findings supporting prominent accounts of hypofrontality. While flow has received only preliminary investigation from a neuroscientific perspective, findings already provide important insights into the crucial role played by higher-order attentional networks, and clear indications of reduced activity in brain regions linked to self-referential processing. The manner in which these processes may benefit sporting performance are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harris
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom.
| | - Samuel J Vine
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Mark R Wilson
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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Palaus M, Marron EM, Viejo-Sobera R, Redolar-Ripoll D. Neural Basis of Video Gaming: A Systematic Review. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:248. [PMID: 28588464 PMCID: PMC5438999 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Video gaming is an increasingly popular activity in contemporary society, especially among young people, and video games are increasing in popularity not only as a research tool but also as a field of study. Many studies have focused on the neural and behavioral effects of video games, providing a great deal of video game derived brain correlates in recent decades. There is a great amount of information, obtained through a myriad of methods, providing neural correlates of video games. Objectives: We aim to understand the relationship between the use of video games and their neural correlates, taking into account the whole variety of cognitive factors that they encompass. Methods: A systematic review was conducted using standardized search operators that included the presence of video games and neuro-imaging techniques or references to structural or functional brain changes. Separate categories were made for studies featuring Internet Gaming Disorder and studies focused on the violent content of video games. Results: A total of 116 articles were considered for the final selection. One hundred provided functional data and 22 measured structural brain changes. One-third of the studies covered video game addiction, and 14% focused on video game related violence. Conclusions: Despite the innate heterogeneity of the field of study, it has been possible to establish a series of links between the neural and cognitive aspects, particularly regarding attention, cognitive control, visuospatial skills, cognitive workload, and reward processing. However, many aspects could be improved. The lack of standardization in the different aspects of video game related research, such as the participants' characteristics, the features of each video game genre and the diverse study goals could contribute to discrepancies in many related studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Palaus
- Cognitive NeuroLab, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Oberta de CatalunyaBarcelona, Spain
| | - Elena M Marron
- Cognitive NeuroLab, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Oberta de CatalunyaBarcelona, Spain
| | - Raquel Viejo-Sobera
- Cognitive NeuroLab, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Oberta de CatalunyaBarcelona, Spain.,Laboratory for Neuropsychiatry and Neuromodulation, Massachusetts General HospitalBoston, MA, USA
| | - Diego Redolar-Ripoll
- Cognitive NeuroLab, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universitat Oberta de CatalunyaBarcelona, Spain
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Di Domenico SI, Ryan RM. The Emerging Neuroscience of Intrinsic Motivation: A New Frontier in Self-Determination Research. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:145. [PMID: 28392765 PMCID: PMC5364176 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrinsic motivation refers to people’s spontaneous tendencies to be curious and interested, to seek out challenges and to exercise and develop their skills and knowledge, even in the absence of operationally separable rewards. Over the past four decades, experimental and field research guided by self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci, 2017) has found intrinsic motivation to predict enhanced learning, performance, creativity, optimal development and psychological wellness. Only recently, however, have studies begun to examine the neurobiological substrates of intrinsic motivation. In the present article, we trace the history of intrinsic motivation research, compare and contrast intrinsic motivation to closely related topics (flow, curiosity, trait plasticity), link intrinsic motivation to key findings in the comparative affective neurosciences, and review burgeoning neuroscience research on intrinsic motivation. We review converging evidence suggesting that intrinsically motivated exploratory and mastery behaviors are phylogenetically ancient tendencies that are subserved by dopaminergic systems. Studies also suggest that intrinsic motivation is associated with patterns of activity across large-scale neural networks, namely, those that support salience detection, attentional control and self-referential cognition. We suggest novel research directions and offer recommendations for the application of neuroscience methods in the study of intrinsic motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano I Di Domenico
- Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University Strathfield, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard M Ryan
- Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic UniversityStrathfield, NSW, Australia; Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of RochesterRochester, NY, USA
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Cummings ML, Gao F, Thornburg KM. Boredom in the Workplace: A New Look at an Old Problem. HUMAN FACTORS 2016; 58:279-300. [PMID: 26490443 DOI: 10.1177/0018720815609503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We review historical and more recent efforts in boredom research and related fields. A framework is presented that organizes the various facets of boredom, particularly in supervisory control settings, and research gaps and future potential areas for study are highlighted. BACKGROUND Given the ubiquity of boredom across a wide spectrum of work environments--exacerbated by increasingly automated systems that remove humans from direct, physical system interaction and possibly increasing tedium in the workplace--there is a need not only to better understand the multiple facets of boredom in work environments but to develop targeted mitigation strategies. METHOD To better understand the relationships between the various influences and outcomes of boredom, a systems-based framework, called the Boredom Influence Diagram, is proposed that describes various elements of boredom and their interrelationships. RESULTS Boredom is closely related to vigilance, attention management, and task performance. This review highlights the need to develop more naturalistic experiments that reflect the characteristics of a boring work environment. CONCLUSION With the increase in automation, boredom in the workplace will likely become a more prevalent issue for motivation and retention. In addition, developing continuous measures of boredom based on physiological signals is critical. APPLICATION Personnel selection and improvements in system and task design can potentially mitigate boredom. However, more work is needed to develop and evaluate other potential interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fei Gao
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
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Classification of prefrontal and motor cortex signals for three-class fNIRS–BCI. Neurosci Lett 2015; 587:87-92. [PMID: 25529197 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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