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FDA-Approved Kinase Inhibitors in Preclinical and Clinical Trials for Neurological Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121546. [PMID: 36558997 PMCID: PMC9784968 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancers and neurological disorders are two major types of diseases. We previously developed a new concept termed "Aberrant Cell Cycle Diseases" (ACCD), revealing that these two diseases share a common mechanism of aberrant cell cycle re-entry. The aberrant cell cycle re-entry is manifested as kinase/oncogene activation and tumor suppressor inactivation, which are hallmarks of both tumor growth in cancers and neuronal death in neurological disorders. Therefore, some cancer therapies (e.g., kinase inhibition, tumor suppressor elevation) can be leveraged for neurological treatments. The United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) has so far approved 74 kinase inhibitors, with numerous other kinase inhibitors in clinical trials, mostly for the treatment of cancers. In contrast, there are dire unmet needs of FDA-approved drugs for neurological treatments, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), ischemic stroke (IS), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and others. In this review, we list these 74 FDA-approved kinase-targeted drugs and identify those that have been reported in preclinical and/or clinical trials for neurological disorders, with a purpose of discussing the feasibility and applicability of leveraging these cancer drugs (FDA-approved kinase inhibitors) for neurological treatments.
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Towner RA, Gulej R, Zalles M, Saunders D, Smith N, Lerner M, Morton KA, Richardson A. Rapamycin restores brain vasculature, metabolism, and blood-brain barrier in an inflammaging model. GeroScience 2021; 43:563-578. [PMID: 33846885 PMCID: PMC8110648 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-021-00363-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapamycin (RAPA) is found to have neuro-protective properties in various neuroinflammatory pathologies, including brain aging. With magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques, we investigated the effect of RAPA in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammaging model in rat brains. Rats were exposed to saline (control), or LPS alone or LPS combined with RAPA treatment (via food over 6 weeks). Arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion imaging was used to measure relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF). MR spectroscopy (MRS) was used to measure brain metabolite levels. Contrast-enhanced MRI (CE-MRI) was used to assess blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to confirm neuroinflammation. RAPA restored NF-κB and HIF-1α to normal levels. RAPA was able to significantly restore rCBF in the cerebral cortex post-LPS exposure (p < 0.05), but not in the hippocampus. In the hippocampus, RAPA was able to restore total creatine (Cr) acutely, and N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) at 6 weeks, post-LPS. Myo-inositol (Myo-Ins) levels were found to decrease with RAPA treatment acutely post-LPS. RAPA was also able to significantly restore the BBB acutely post-LPS in both the cortex and hippocampus (p < 0.05 for both). RAPA was found to increase the percent change in BOLD signal in the cortex at 3 weeks, and in the hippocampus at 6 weeks post-LPS, compared to LPS alone. RAPA treatment also restored the neuronal and macro-vascular marker, EphB2, back to normal levels. These results indicate that RAPA may play an important therapeutic role in inhibiting neuroinflammation by normalizing brain vascularity, BBB, and some brain metabolites, and has a high translational capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rheal A Towner
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
- Neuroscience Program, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Oklahoma Nathan Shock Center for Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
| | - Rafal Gulej
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Michelle Zalles
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Debra Saunders
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Nataliya Smith
- Advanced Magnetic Resonance Center, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
| | - Megan Lerner
- Department of Surgery, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Kathryn A Morton
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Arlan Richardson
- Oklahoma Nathan Shock Center for Aging, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
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Hsu WT, Chen YH, Yang HB, Lin JG, Hung SY. Electroacupuncture Improves Motor Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease and Promotes Neuronal Autophagy Activity in Mouse Brain. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2020; 48:1651-1669. [PMID: 33202151 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x20500822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Autophagic defects are a hallmark of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disorder (PD). Enhancing autophagy to remove impaired mitochondria and toxic protein aggregation is an essential component of PD treatment. In particular, activation of autophagy confers neuroprotection in cellular and preclinical models of neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic mechanisms of electroacupuncture (EA) treatment in mice with established PD and evaluated the relationship between EA, autophagy, and different neurons in the mouse brain. We report that EA improves PD motor symptoms in mice and enhances (1) autophagy initiation (increased Beclin 1), (2) autophagosome biogenesis (increased Atg5, Atg7, Atg9A, Atg12, Atg16L, Atg3, and LC3-II), (3) autophagy flux/substrate degradation (decreased p62), and (4) mitophagy (increased PINK1 and DJ-1) in neurons of the substantia nigra, striatum, hippocampus, and cortex (affected brain areas of PD, Huntington disease, and Alzheimer's disease). EA enhances autophagy initiation, autophagosome biogenesis, mitophagy, and autophagy flux/substrate degradation in certain brain areas. Our findings are the first to show that EA regulates neuronal autophagy and suggest that this convenient, inexpensive treatment has exciting therapeutic potential in neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ti Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.,Department of Anesthesiology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hung Chen
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.,Chinese Medicine Research Center, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Han-Bin Yang
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.,Department of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40249, Taiwan
| | - Jaung-Geng Lin
- School of Chinese Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Ya Hung
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.,Division of Colorectal Surgery, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
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Wang H, Tong Y, Xiao D, Xia B. Involvement of mTOR-related signaling in antidepressant effects of Sophoraflavanone G on chronically stressed mice. Phytother Res 2020; 34:2246-2257. [PMID: 32246575 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
SophoraflavanoneG (SG), an important prenylated flavonoid isolated from Sophoraalopecuroides.L, is effective for many illnesses. The present study was designed to investigate whether the compound could reverse depressive-like symptoms and investigate its possible mechanisms. Chronic Unpredictable Mild Stress (CUMS) mice were treated with fluoxetine and SG. The immobility time in forced swimming test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST) were recorded. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neurotransmitters in the hippocampus were evaluated. Furthermore, the protein expressions of PI3K, AKT, mTOR, p70S6K, BDNF, and Trkb in hippocampus were detected. Rapamycin, the selective mTOR inhibitor, was used to estimate the potential mechanism. As a result, after 7 days of SG treatment, the immobility time in FST and TST was declined obviously. The levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in the hippocampus were significantly reduced, and the quantity of 5-HT and NE was raised considerably in SG-treated group compared with the CUMS-exposed group. Additionally, SG could up-regulate the expressions of PI3K, AKT, mTOR, 70S6K, BDNF, and Trkb. The blockade of mammalian target of rapamycin signaling blunted the antidepressant effect and reversed the up-regulation of BDNF expression caused by SG. These findings suggested that SG treatment alleviated depressive-like symptoms via mTOR-mediated BDNF/Trkb signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanqing Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China.,Ningxia Research Center of Modern Hui Medicine Engineering and Technology, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China.,Key Laboratory of Hui Ethnic Medicine Modernization, Ministry of Education, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Yue Tong
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Dong Xiao
- College of Pharmacy, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Baomei Xia
- Faculty of Rehabilitation Science, Nanjing Normal University of Special Education, Nanjing, China
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Autophagy Induction by HDAC Inhibitors Is Unlikely to be the Mechanism of Efficacy in Prevention of Retinal Degeneration Caused by P23H Rhodopsin. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1185:401-405. [PMID: 31884645 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27378-1_66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We previously found that valproic acid (VPA) and other histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis) ameliorate retinal degeneration (RD) caused by P23H rhodopsin in Xenopus laevis larvae and hypothesized that this may be due to enhancement of autophagy. Here we use X. laevis expressing an autophagy marker to assess effects of HDACis on autophagy. We also assess the effects of non-HDACi activators and inducers of autophagy on RD caused by P23H rhodopsin.
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Qin Y, Zhang Q, Liu Y. Analysis of knowledge bases and research focuses of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion from the perspective of mapping knowledge domain. Brain Res Bull 2019; 156:15-24. [PMID: 31843561 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (IR) has attracted wide attention as a serious clinical problem. So far, the field has accumulated a large amount of scientific research literature. To clarify the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of research resources, knowledge bases and research focuses, a visual analysis was performed on 5814 articles cited in the WoS databases from 2004 to 2019. This analysis was based on bibliometrics and mapping knowledge domain (MKD) analysis with VOSviewer, and CiteSpace 5.4.R4. The results can be elaborated from four aspects. First, the volume of publications in this area is on the rise. Second, the United States and China are the active regions. The USA is the central region of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion research. Third, the knowledge bases of IR have focused on five major areas of "Suitable small-animal models", "A framework with further study", "Molecular signaling targets by oxidative stress", "Finding new potential targets for therapy" and "Protective effect of multiple transient ischemia". Fourth, the research focuses consist of three representative areas: "Oxidative stress closelyd with cerebral ischemia-reperfusion", "Neuronal apoptosis and neuronal protection", and "Neuroprotective effect of the blood-brain barrier".
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Qin
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China; Xiyuan Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100091, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- No.4 Hospital Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Zaozhuang, Shandong 277000
| | - Yaru Liu
- School of Acupuncture-Moxibustion and Tuina, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
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Prabhakar S, Cheah PS, Zhang X, Zinter M, Gianatasio M, Hudry E, Bronson RT, Kwiatkowski DJ, Stemmer-Rachamimov A, Maguire CA, Sena-Esteves M, Tannous BA, Breakefield XO. Long-Term Therapeutic Efficacy of Intravenous AAV-Mediated Hamartin Replacement in Mouse Model of Tuberous Sclerosis Type 1. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2019; 15:18-26. [PMID: 31534984 PMCID: PMC6745533 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a tumor suppressor syndrome caused by mutations in TSC1 or TSC2, encoding hamartin and tuberin, respectively. These proteins act as a complex that inhibits mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-mediated cell growth and proliferation. Loss of either protein leads to overgrowth in many organs, including subependymal nodules, subependymal giant cell astrocytomas, and cortical tubers in the human brain. Neurological manifestations in TSC include intellectual disability, autism, hydrocephalus, and epilepsy. In a stochastic mouse model of TSC1 brain lesions, complete loss of Tsc1 is achieved in homozygous Tsc1-floxed mice in a subpopulation of neural cells in the brain by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection at birth of an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector encoding Cre recombinase. This results in median survival of 38 days and brain pathology, including subependymal lesions and enlargement of neuronal cells. Remarkably, when these mice were injected intravenously on day 21 with an AAV9 vector encoding hamartin, most survived at least up to 429 days in apparently healthy condition with marked reduction in brain pathology. Thus, a single intravenous administration of an AAV vector encoding hamartin restored protein function in enough cells in the brain to extend lifespan in this TSC1 mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Prabhakar
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Pike See Cheah
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA.,Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Max Zinter
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Maria Gianatasio
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Eloise Hudry
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Roderick T Bronson
- Rodent Histopathology Core Facility, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | - Casey A Maguire
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Miguel Sena-Esteves
- Department of Neurology, Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Bakhos A Tannous
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Xandra O Breakefield
- Molecular Neurogenetics Unit, Department of Neurology and Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Neurodiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
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Hadley G, Beard DJ, Couch Y, Neuhaus AA, Adriaanse BA, DeLuca GC, Sutherland BA, Buchan AM. Rapamycin in ischemic stroke: Old drug, new tricks? J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2019; 39:20-35. [PMID: 30334673 PMCID: PMC6311672 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x18807309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The significant morbidity that accompanies stroke makes it one of the world's most devastating neurological disorders. Currently, proven effective therapies have been limited to thrombolysis and thrombectomy. The window for the administration of these therapies is narrow, hampered by the necessity of rapidly imaging patients. A therapy that could extend this window by protecting neurons may improve outcome. Endogenous neuroprotection has been shown to be, in part, due to changes in mTOR signalling pathways and the instigation of productive autophagy. Inducing this effect pharmacologically could improve clinical outcomes. One such therapy already in use in transplant medicine is the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Recent evidence suggests that rapamycin is neuroprotective, not only via neuronal autophagy but also through its broader effects on other cells of the neurovascular unit. This review highlights the potential use of rapamycin as a multimodal therapy, acting on the blood-brain barrier, cerebral blood flow and inflammation, as well as directly on neurons. There is significant potential in applying this old drug in new ways to improve functional outcomes for patients after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Hadley
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Daniel J Beard
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Yvonne Couch
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ain A Neuhaus
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Bryan A Adriaanse
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Gabriele C DeLuca
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Brad A Sutherland
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Alastair M Buchan
- Acute Stroke Programme, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Acute Vascular Imaging Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, UK
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Liu X, Kiss GK, Mellender SJ, Weiss HR, Chi OZ. Activation of Akt by SC79 decreased cerebral infarct in early cerebral ischemia-reperfusion despite increased BBB disruption. Neurosci Lett 2018; 681:78-82. [PMID: 29859325 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.05.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Activation of Akt has been suggested to produce neuronal protection in cerebral ischemia. Decreasing blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption has been associated with a better neuronal outcome in cerebral ischemia. We hypothesized that activation of Akt would decrease BBB disruption and contribute to decreasing the size of infarct in the early stage of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion within the therapeutic window. Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was performed in rats under isoflurane anesthesia with controlled ventilation. Rats were treated with SC79 (a selective Akt activator which is cell and BBB permeable) 0.05 mg/kg × 3 i.p. or vehicle i.p. perioperatively. After one hour of MCAO and two hours of reperfusion, the transfer coefficient (Ki) of 14C-α-aminoisobutyric acid (14C-AIB, molecular weight 104 Da) and the volume of 3H-dextran (molecular weight 70,000 Da) distribution were determined to measure the degree of BBB disruption. At the same time point, the size of infarction was determined using tetrazolium staining. In an additional group of rats, a higher dose of SC79 (0.5 mg/kg × 3) was administered to determine the size of infarct. Administration of SC79 increased the Ki in the ischemic-reperfused cortex (IR-C, +32%, p < 0.05) as well as in the contralateral cortex (CC, +35%, p < 0.05) when compared with the untreated animals with MCAO/reperfusion. The volume of dextran distribution was not significantly changed by SC79. SC79 treatment significantly produced a decrease in the percentage of cortical infarct out of total cortical area (12.7 ± 1.7% vs 6.9 ± 0.9%, p < 0.001). Increasing the dose of SC79 by ten times did not significantly affect the size of cortical infarct. Contrary to our hypothesis, our data demonstrated that SC79 decreased the size of the infarct in the ischemic-reperfused cortex despite an increase in BBB disruption. Our data suggest the importance of activation of Akt for neuronal survival in the early stage of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion within the therapeutic window and that the mechanism of neuroprotection may not be related to the BBB effects of SC79.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 125 Paterson Street, Suite 3100, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1977, USA
| | - Geza K Kiss
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 125 Paterson Street, Suite 3100, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1977, USA
| | - Scott J Mellender
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 125 Paterson Street, Suite 3100, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1977, USA
| | - Harvey R Weiss
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 675 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Oak Z Chi
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 125 Paterson Street, Suite 3100, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1977, USA.
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