Cellular and molecular mechanisms of avian auditory coincidence detection

Electrophysiological correlates of divergent projections in the avian superior olivary nucleus

The physiological diversity of inhibitory neurons provides ample opportunity to influence a wide range of computational roles through their varied activity patterns, especially via feedback loops. In the avian auditory brain stem, inhibition originates primarily from the superior olivary nucleus (SON), and so it is critical to understand the intrinsic physiological properties and processing capabilities of these neurons. Neurons in the SON receive ascending input via the cochlear nuclei: directly from the intensity-coding cochlear nucleus angularis (NA) and indirectly via the interaural timing nucleus laminaris (NL), which itself receives input from cochlear nucleus magnocellularis (NM). Two distinct populations of SON neurons provide inhibitory feedback either to ipsilateral NA, NL, and the timing cochlear nucleus NM or to the contralateral SON. To determine whether these populations correspond to distinct response types, we investigated their electrophysiology in brain stem slices, using patch-clamp electrophysiology. We identified three phenotypes: single-spiking, chattering tonic, and regular tonic neurons. The two tonic phenotypes displayed distinct firing patterns and different membrane properties. Fluctuating "noisy" currents used to probe the capability of SON neurons to encode temporal features showed that each phenotype differed in sensitivity to temporally modulated input. By using cell fills and anatomical reconstructions, we could correlate the firing phenotypes with their axonal projection patterns. We found that SON axons exited via three fiber tracts, with each tract composed of specific phenotypes. These results provide a basis for understanding the role of specific inhibitory cell types in auditory function and elucidate the organization of the SON outputs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Inhibitory inputs for the avian brain stem originate primarily from the superior olivary nucleus (SON). We describe three intrinsic phenotypes of SON neurons and show how they differ in their temporal processing and projection patterns. We propose that the two types of tonic firing neurons (including one novel type) and the single-spiking neurons in SON comprise separate feedback circuits that may differentially influence the auditory information flowing via the cochlear nuclei and nucleus laminaris.

Expression and Neurotransmitter Association of the Synaptic Calcium Sensor Synaptotagmin in the Avian Auditory Brain Stem

In the avian auditory brain stem, acoustic timing and intensity cues are processed in separate, parallel pathways via the two divisions of the cochlear nucleus, nucleus angularis (NA) and nucleus magnocellularis (NM). Differences in excitatory and inhibitory synaptic properties, such as release probability and short-term plasticity, contribute to differential processing of the auditory nerve inputs. We investigated the distribution of synaptotagmin, a putative calcium sensor for exocytosis, via immunohistochemistry and double immunofluorescence in the embryonic and hatchling chick brain stem (Gallus gallus). We found that the two major isoforms, synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1) and synaptotagmin 2 (Syt2), showed differential expression. In the NM, anti-Syt2 label was strong and resembled the endbulb terminals of the auditory nerve inputs, while anti-Syt1 label was weaker and more punctate. In NA, both isoforms were intensely expressed throughout the neuropil. A third isoform, synaptotagmin 7 (Syt7), was largely absent from the cochlear nuclei. In nucleus laminaris (NL, the target nucleus of NM), anti-Syt2 and anti-Syt7 strongly labeled the dendritic lamina. These patterns were established by embryonic day 18 and persisted to postnatal day 7. Double-labeling immunofluorescence showed that Syt1 and Syt2 were associated with vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGluT2), but not vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT), suggesting that these Syt isoforms were localized to excitatory, but not inhibitory, terminals. These results suggest that Syt2 is the major calcium binding protein underlying excitatory neurotransmission in the timing pathway comprising NM and NL, while Syt2 and Syt1 regulate excitatory transmission in the parallel intensity pathway via cochlear nucleus NA.

Quantitative analysis of the GABAergic innervation of the soma and axon initial segment of pyramidal cells in the human and mouse neocortex

Perisomatic GABAergic innervation in the cerebral cortex is carried out mostly by basket and chandelier cells, which differentially participate in the control of pyramidal cell action potential output and synchronization. These cells establish multiple synapses with the cell body (and proximal dendrites) and the axon initial segment (AIS) of pyramidal neurons, respectively. Using multiple immunofluorescence, confocal microscopy and 3D quantification techniques, we have estimated the number and density of GABAergic boutons on the cell body and AIS of pyramidal neurons located through cortical layers of the human and mouse neocortex. The results revealed, in both species, that there is clear variability across layers regarding the density and number of perisomatic GABAergic boutons. We found a positive linear correlation between the surface area of the soma, or the AIS, and the number of GABAergic terminals in apposition to these 2 neuronal domains. Furthermore, the density of perisomatic GABAergic boutons was higher in the human cortex than in the mouse. These results suggest a selectivity for the GABAergic innervation of the cell body and AIS that might be related to the different functional attributes of the microcircuits in which neurons from different layers are involved in both human and mouse.

Cellular Strategies for Frequency-Dependent Computation of Interaural Time Difference

Binaural coincidence detection is the initial step in encoding interaural time differences (ITDs) for sound-source localization. In birds, neurons in the nucleus laminaris (NL) play a central role in this process. These neurons receive excitatory synaptic inputs on dendrites from both sides of the cochlear nucleus and compare their coincidences at the soma. The NL is tonotopically organized, and individual neurons receive a pattern of synaptic inputs that are specific to their tuning frequency. NL neurons differ in their dendritic morphology along the tonotopic axis; their length increases with lower tuning frequency. In addition, our series of studies have revealed several frequency-dependent refinements in the morphological and biophysical characteristics of NL neurons, such as the amount and subcellular distribution of ion channels and excitatory and inhibitory synapses, which enable the neurons to process the frequency-specific pattern of inputs appropriately and encode ITDs at each frequency band. In this review, we will summarize these refinements of NL neurons and their implications for the ITD coding. We will also discuss the similarities and differences between avian and mammalian coincidence detectors.

Kv1 channels regulate variations in spike patterning and temporal reliability in the avian cochlear nucleus angularis

Diverse physiological phenotypes in a neuronal population can broaden the range of computational capabilities within a brain region. The avian cochlear nucleus angularis (NA) contains a heterogeneous population of neurons whose variation in intrinsic properties results in electrophysiological phenotypes with a range of sensitivities to temporally modulated input. The low-threshold potassium conductance (G_KLT) is a key feature of neurons involved in fine temporal structure coding for sound localization, but a role for these channels in intensity or spectrotemporal coding has not been established. To determine whether G_KLT affects the phenotypical variation and temporal properties of NA neurons, we applied dendrotoxin-I (DTX), a potent antagonist of Kv1-type potassium channels, to chick brain stem slices in vitro during whole cell patch-clamp recordings. We found a cell-type specific subset of NA neurons that was sensitive to DTX: single-spiking NA neurons were most profoundly affected, as well as a subset of tonic-firing neurons. Both tonic I (phasic onset bursting) and tonic II (delayed firing) neurons showed DTX sensitivity in their firing rate and phenotypical firing pattern. Tonic III neurons were unaffected. Spike time reliability and fluctuation sensitivity measured in DTX-sensitive NA neurons was also reduced with DTX. Finally, DTX reduced spike threshold adaptation in these neurons, suggesting that G_KLT contributes to the temporal properties that allow coding of rapid changes in the inputs to NA neurons. These results suggest that variation in Kv1 channel expression may be a key factor in functional diversity in the avian cochlear nucleus.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The dendrotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated potassium conductance typically associated with neuronal coincidence detection in the timing pathway for sound localization is demonstrated to affect spiking patterns and temporal input sensitivity in the intensity pathway in the avian auditory brain stem. The Kv1-family channels appear to be present in a subset of cochlear nucleus angularis neurons, regulate spike threshold dynamics underlying high-pass membrane filtering, and contribute to intrinsic firing diversity.

Spike threshold adaptation diversifies neuronal operating modes in the auditory brain stem

Single neurons function along a spectrum of neuronal operating modes whose properties determine how the output firing activity is generated from synaptic input. The auditory brain stem contains a diversity of neurons, from pure coincidence detectors to pure integrators and those with intermediate properties. We investigated how intrinsic spike initiation mechanisms regulate neuronal operating mode in the avian cochlear nucleus. Although the neurons in one division of the avian cochlear nucleus, nucleus magnocellularis, have been studied in depth, the spike threshold dynamics of the tonically firing neurons of a second division of cochlear nucleus, nucleus angularis (NA), remained unexplained. The input-output functions of tonically firing NA neurons were interrogated with directly injected in vivo-like current stimuli during whole cell patch-clamp recordings in vitro. Increasing the amplitude of the noise fluctuations in the current stimulus enhanced the firing rates in one subset of tonically firing neurons ("differentiators") but not another ("integrators"). We found that spike thresholds showed significantly greater adaptation and variability in the differentiator neurons. A leaky integrate-and-fire neuronal model with an adaptive spike initiation process derived from sodium channel dynamics was fit to the firing responses and could recapitulate >80% of the precise temporal firing across a range of fluctuation and mean current levels. Greater threshold adaptation explained the frequency-current curve changes due to a hyperpolarized shift in the effective adaptation voltage range and longer-lasting threshold adaptation in differentiators. The fine-tuning of the intrinsic properties of different NA neurons suggests they may have specialized roles in spectrotemporal processing.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Avian cochlear nucleus angularis (NA) neurons are responsible for encoding sound intensity for sound localization and spectrotemporal processing. An adaptive spike threshold mechanism fine-tunes a subset of repetitive-spiking neurons in NA to confer coincidence detector-like properties. A model based on sodium channel inactivation properties reproduced the activity via a hyperpolarized shift in adaptation conferring fluctuation sensitivity.

Auditory Input Shapes Tonotopic Differentiation of Kv1.1 Expression in Avian Cochlear Nucleus during Late Development

Tonotopic differentiation is fundamental for signal processing in the auditory system. However, when and how this differentiation arises remain elusive. We addressed this issue using electrophysiology and immunohistochemistry in nucleus magnocellularis of chickens of both sexes, which is known to differ in the expression of Kv1.1 channels depending on characteristic frequency (CF). Just after hearing onset (embryonic day 12-14), Kv1 current gradually increased to a slightly larger extent in neurons with higher CF, causing a tonotopic difference of Kv1 current before hatch. However, after hatch, a much larger increase of Kv1 current occurred, particularly in higher-CF neurons, due to an augmentation of Kv1.1 expression at the plasma membrane. This later change in expression led to the large tonotopic difference of Kv1 current characteristic of mature animals. Attenuation of auditory input by inducing conductive or sensorineural hearing loss around hatch suppressed the differentiation in a level-dependent manner. Moreover, elevation of auditory input during embryonic periods could not reproduce the differentiation, suggesting that the capacity of neurons to drive Kv1.1 expression via auditory input develops in a cell-specific manner, thus underlying the frequency-specific expression of the channel within the nucleus. The results indicated that the tonotopic differentiation of Kv1.1 in nucleus magnocellularis is partially determined before hatch, but largely driven by afferent input after hatch. Our results highlight the importance of neuronal capacity for sound to drive ion channel expression as well as the level of auditory experience in the frequency tuning of brainstem auditory circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Tuning-frequency-specific expression of ion channels is a prerequisite for auditory system function, but its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we revealed in avian cochlear nucleus that the expression of Kv1.1 became more dependent on auditory input at a late period of maturation in neurons tuned to higher-frequency sound, leading to frequency-specific Kv1.1 expression. Attenuation of auditory input during this period suppressed the differentiation in a level-dependent manner, whereas elevation of input in earlier periods could not reproduce the differentiation. Thus, the capacity of neurons to drive Kv1.1 expression via auditory input develops in a cell-specific manner and directs differentiation, highlighting the importance of neuronal character as well as the level of input in the frequency tuning of auditory circuits.

Tonotopic Variation of the T-Type Ca2+ Current in Avian Auditory Coincidence Detector Neurons

Neurons in avian nucleus laminaris (NL) are binaural coincidence detectors for sound localization and are characterized by striking structural variations in dendrites and axon initial segment (AIS) according to their acoustic tuning [characteristic frequency (CF)]. T-type Ca²⁺ (CaT) channels regulate synaptic integration and firing behavior at these neuronal structures. However, whether or how CaT channels contribute to the signal processing in NL neurons is not known. In this study, we addressed this issue with whole-cell recording and two-photon Ca²⁺ imaging in brain slices of posthatch chicks of both sexes. We found that the CaT current was prominent in low-CF neurons, whereas it was almost absent in higher-CF neurons. In addition, a large Ca²⁺ transient occurred at the dendrites and the AIS of low-CF neurons, indicating a localization of CaT channels at these structures in the neurons. Because low-CF neurons have long dendrites, dendritic CaT channels may compensate for the attenuation of EPSPs at dendrites. Furthermore, the short distance of AIS from the soma may accelerate activation of axonal CaT current in the neurons and help EPSPs reach spike threshold. Indeed, the CaT current was activated by EPSPs and augmented the synaptic response and spike generation of the neurons. Notably, the CaT current was inactivated during repetitive inputs, and these augmenting effects predominated at the initial phase of synaptic activity. These results suggested that dendritic and axonal CaT channels increase the sensitivity to sound at its onset, which may expand the dynamic range for binaural computation in low-CF NL neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neurons in nucleus laminaris are binaural coincidence detectors for sound localization. We report that T-type Ca²⁺ (CaT) current was prominent at dendrites and the axonal trigger zone in neurons tuned to low-frequency sound. Because these neurons have long dendrites and a closer trigger zone compared with those tuned to higher-frequency sound, the CaT current augmented EPSPs at dendrites and accelerated spike triggers in the neurons, implying a strategic arrangement of the current within the nucleus. This effect was limited to the onset of repetitive inputs due to progressive inactivation of CaT current. The results suggested that the CaT current increases the sensitivity to sound at its onset, which may expand the dynamic range for binaural computation of low-frequency sound.

Proteomic analyses of nucleus laminaris identified candidate targets of the fragile X mental retardation protein

The avian nucleus laminaris (NL) is a brainstem nucleus necessary for binaural processing, analogous in structure and function to the mammalian medial superior olive. In chickens (Gallus gallus), NL is a well-studied model system for activity-dependent neural plasticity. Its neurons have bipolar extension of dendrites, which receive segregated inputs from two ears and display rapid and compartment-specific reorganization in response to unilateral changes in auditory input. More recently, fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), an RNA-binding protein that regulates local protein translation, has been shown to be enriched in NL dendrites, suggesting its potential role in the structural dynamics of these dendrites. To explore the molecular role of FMRP in this nucleus, we performed proteomic analysis of NL, using micro laser capture and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. We identified 657 proteins, greatly represented in pathways involved in mitochondria, translation and metabolism, consistent with high levels of activity of NL neurons. Of these, 94 are potential FMRP targets, by comparative analysis with previously proposed FMRP targets in mammals. These proteins are enriched in pathways involved in cellular growth, cellular trafficking and transmembrane transport. Immunocytochemistry verified the dendritic localization of several proteins in NL. Furthermore, we confirmed the direct interaction of FMRP with one candidate, RhoC, by in vitro RNA binding assays. In summary, we provide a database of highly expressed proteins in NL and in particular a list of potential FMRP targets, with the goal of facilitating molecular characterization of FMRP signaling in future studies.

A fast BK-type KCa current acts as a postsynaptic modulator of temporal selectivity for communication signals

Temporal patterns of spiking often convey behaviorally relevant information. Various synaptic mechanisms and intrinsic membrane properties can influence neuronal selectivity to temporal patterns of input. However, little is known about how synaptic mechanisms and intrinsic properties together determine the temporal selectivity of neuronal output. We tackled this question by recording from midbrain electrosensory neurons in mormyrid fish, in which the processing of temporal intervals between communication signals can be studied in a reduced in vitro preparation. Mormyrids communicate by varying interpulse intervals (IPIs) between electric pulses. Within the midbrain posterior exterolateral nucleus (ELp), the temporal patterns of afferent spike trains are filtered to establish single-neuron IPI tuning. We performed whole-cell recording from ELp neurons in a whole-brain preparation and examined the relationship between intrinsic excitability and IPI tuning. We found that spike frequency adaptation of ELp neurons was highly variable. Postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) of strongly adapting (phasic) neurons were more sharply tuned to IPIs than weakly adapting (tonic) neurons. Further, the synaptic filtering of IPIs by tonic neurons was more faithfully converted into variation in spiking output, particularly at short IPIs. Pharmacological manipulation under current- and voltage-clamp revealed that tonic firing is mediated by a fast, large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (KCa) current (BK) that speeds up action potential repolarization. These results suggest that BK currents can shape the temporal filtering of sensory inputs by modifying both synaptic responses and PSP-to-spike conversion. Slow SK-type KCa currents have previously been implicated in temporal processing. Thus, both fast and slow KCa currents can fine-tune temporal selectivity.

Heterogeneous calretinin expression in the avian cochlear nucleus angularis

Multiple calcium-binding proteins (CaBPs) are expressed at high levels and in complementary patterns in the auditory pathways of birds, mammals, and other vertebrates, but whether specific members of the CaBP family can be used to identify neuronal subpopulations is unclear. We used double immunofluorescence labeling of calretinin (CR) in combination with neuronal markers to investigate the distribution of CR-expressing neurons in brainstem sections of the cochlear nucleus in the chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). While CR was homogeneously expressed in cochlear nucleus magnocellularis, CR expression was highly heterogeneous in cochlear nucleus angularis (NA), a nucleus with diverse cell types analogous in function to neurons in the mammalian ventral cochlear nucleus. To quantify the distribution of CR in the total NA cell population, we used antibodies against neuronal nuclear protein (NeuN), a postmitotic neuron-specific nuclear marker. In NA neurons, NeuN label was variably localized to the cell nucleus and the cytoplasm, and the intensity of NeuN immunoreactivity was inversely correlated with the intensity of CR immunoreactivity. The percentage of CR + neurons in NA increased from 31 % in embryonic (E)17/18 chicks, to 44 % around hatching (E21), to 51 % in postnatal day (P) 8 chicks. By P8, the distribution of CR + neurons was uniform, both rostrocaudal and in the tonotopic (dorsoventral) axis. Immunoreactivity for the voltage-gated potassium ion channel Kv1.1, used as a marker for physiological type, showed broad and heterogeneous postsynaptic expression in NA, but did not correlate with CR expression. These results suggest that CR may define a subpopulation of neurons within nucleus angularis.

Heterogeneity of intrinsic biophysical properties among cochlear nucleus neurons improves the population coding of temporal information

Reliable representation of the spectrotemporal features of an acoustic stimulus is critical for sound recognition. However, if all neurons respond with identical firing to the same stimulus, redundancy in the activity patterns would reduce the information capacity of the population. We thus investigated spike reliability and temporal fluctuation coding in an ensemble of neurons recorded in vitro from the avian auditory brain stem. Sequential patch-clamp recordings were made from neurons of the cochlear nucleus angularis while injecting identical filtered Gaussian white noise currents, simulating synaptic drive. The spiking activity in neurons receiving these identically fluctuating stimuli was highly correlated, measured pairwise across neurons and as a pseudo-population. Two distinct uncorrelated noise stimuli could be discriminated using the temporal patterning, but not firing rate, of the spike trains in the neural ensemble, with best discrimination using information at time scales of 5-20 ms. Despite high cross-correlation values, the spike patterns observed in individual neurons were idiosyncratic, with notable heterogeneity across neurons. To investigate how temporal information is being encoded, we used optimal linear reconstruction to produce an estimate of the original current stimulus from the spike trains. Ensembles of trains sampled across the neural population could be used to predict >50% of the stimulus variation using optimal linear decoding, compared with ∼20% using the same number of spike trains recorded from single neurons. We conclude that heterogeneity in the intrinsic biophysical properties of cochlear nucleus neurons reduces firing pattern redundancy while enhancing representation of temporal information.

Multiplexed temporal coding of electric communication signals in mormyrid fishes

The coding of stimulus information into patterns of spike times occurs widely in sensory systems. Determining how temporally coded information is decoded by central neurons is essential to understanding how brains process sensory stimuli. Mormyrid weakly electric fishes are experts at time coding, making them an exemplary organism for addressing this question. Mormyrids generate brief, stereotyped electric pulses. Pulse waveform carries information about sender identity, and it is encoded into submillisecond-to-millisecond differences in spike timing between receptors. Mormyrids vary the time between pulses to communicate behavioral state, and these intervals are encoded into the sequence of interspike intervals within receptors. Thus, the responses of peripheral electroreceptors establish a temporally multiplexed code for communication signals, one consisting of spike timing differences between receptors and a second consisting of interspike intervals within receptors. These signals are processed in a dedicated sensory pathway, and recent studies have shed light on the mechanisms by which central circuits can extract behaviorally relevant information from multiplexed temporal codes. Evolutionary change in the anatomy of this pathway is related to differences in electrosensory perception, which appears to have influenced the diversification of electric signals and species. However, it remains unknown how this evolutionary change relates to differences in sensory coding schemes, neuronal circuitry and central sensory processing. The mormyrid electric communication pathway is a powerful model for integrating mechanistic studies of temporal coding with evolutionary studies of correlated differences in brain and behavior to investigate neural mechanisms for processing temporal codes.

Structural tuning and plasticity of the axon initial segment in auditory neurons

The axon initial segment (AIS) that separates axonal and somato-dendritic compartments is a highly specialised neuronal structure enriched with voltage-gated Na(+) channels and functions as the site of spike initiation in neurons. The AIS was once thought to be uniform and static in structure, but has been found to be organised in a manner specific to the function of individual neurons and to exhibit plasticity with changes in synaptic inputs. Such structural specialisations are found in the avian auditory system. In the nucleus magnocellularis (NM), which is involved in a precise relay of timing information, the length of the AIS differs depending on sound frequency and increases with decreasing frequencies to accommodate frequency-specific variations in synaptic inputs. In the nucleus laminaris, which integrates the timing information from both NMs for sound localisation, the length and the location of the AIS vary depending on sound frequency: AISs are shorter and more remote for higher frequency. Furthermore, the AISs of NM neurons elongate to increase their excitability when synaptic inputs are removed by cochlea ablation, suggesting their contribution to the homeostatic control of neural activity. These structural tunings and plasticities of the AIS are thus indispensable for the function of the auditory circuits in both normal and pathological conditions.

Intrinsic firing properties in the avian auditory brain stem allow both integration and encoding of temporally modulated noisy inputs in vitro

The intrinsic properties of tonically firing neurons in the cochlear nucleus contribute to representing average sound intensity by favoring synaptic integration across auditory nerve inputs, reducing phase locking to fine temporal acoustic structure and enhancing envelope locking. To determine whether tonically firing neurons of the avian cochlear nucleus angularis (NA) resemble ideal integrators, we investigated their firing responses to noisy current injections during whole cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices. One subclass of neurons (36% of tonically firing neurons, mainly subtype tonic III) showed no significant changes in firing rate with noise fluctuations, acting like pure integrators. In contrast, many tonically firing neurons (>60%, mainly subtype tonic I or II) showed a robust sensitivity to noisy current fluctuations, increasing their firing rates with increased fluctuation amplitudes. For noise-sensitive tonic neurons, the firing rate vs. average current curves with noise had larger maximal firing rates, lower gains, and wider dynamic ranges compared with FI curves for current steps without noise. All NA neurons showed fluctuation-driven patterning of spikes with a high degree of temporal reliability and millisecond spike time precision. Single-spiking neurons in NA also responded to noisy currents with higher firing rates and reliable spike trains, although less precisely than nucleus magnocellularis neurons. Thus some NA neurons function as integrators by encoding average input levels over wide dynamic ranges regardless of current fluctuations, others detect the degree of coherence in the inputs, and most encode the temporal patterns contained in their inputs with a high degree of precision.

Auditory neuroscience: how to encode microsecond differences

Minute differences between the time of arrival of a sound at the two ears are used by humans and animals to locate the source. New in vivo recordings have shed light on how auditory neurons solve the problem of resolving microsecond time differences.