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Chen Y, Zhang L, Ding Z, Wu X, Wang G, Shi J. Effects of 3-methylmethcathinone on conditioned place preference and anxiety-like behavior: Comparison with methamphetamine. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:975820. [PMID: 35935336 PMCID: PMC9354685 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.975820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Methylmethcathinone (3-MMC), a drug belonging to synthetic cathinones family, raised public attention due to its harmful health effects and abuse potential. Although it has similar properties to other cathinone derivatives, the behavioral effects of 3-MMC remain largely unknown. In the present research, we evaluated the rewarding effect of 3-MMC using conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm and its effect on anxiety-like behavior using elevated plus maze (EPM) and compared with methamphetamine (METH). Then, we performed a whole-brain c-Fos mapping to identify the specific brain regions in response to 3-MMC exposure and explored the changes of synaptic transmission in nucleus accumbens (NAc) using patch-clamp recording after chronic 3-MMC and METH exposure. 3-MMC induced CPP at higher doses of 3 or 10 mg/kg in rats and acute exposure of 3 mg/kg 3-MMC to rats produced anxiolytic-like effect, while anxiety-like behavior was increased after 7 days of injection with 3-MMC. Whole-brain immunostaining revealed increased c-Fos expression in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), NAc and ventral tegmental area (VTA) after chronic 3-MMC injection compared with saline, which was similar to METH. Especially, 3-MMC induced more neural activation of VTA compared with METH. Finally, we found that amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) in NAc was decreased after chronic 3-MMC injection, while frequency of sIPSCs and spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) were not affected. Taken together, our results revealed the addictive potential of 3-MMC and its effect on anxiety-like behavior, which warn the risks of 3-MMC abuse and justify the control of synthetic cathinones. And 3-MMC selectively inhibit inhibitory but not excitatory transmission onto neurons in NAc, which may contribute to its effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Chen
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Libo Zhang
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Shenzhen Public Service Platform for Clinical Application of Medical Imaging, Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Drug Addiction and Medication Safety, Department of Ultrasound, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zengbo Ding
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xianwen Wu
- Department of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Peking University Health Sciences Center, Beijing, China
| | - Guibin Wang
- Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Guibin Wang,
| | - Jie Shi
- National Institute on Drug Dependence and Beijing Key Laboratory of Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
- The State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory for Neuroscience of the Ministry of Education and Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Jie Shi,
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Espinosa-Velasco M, Reguilón MD, Bellot M, Nadal-Gratacós N, Berzosa X, Gómez-Canela C, Rodríguez-Arias M, Camarasa J, Escubedo E, Pubill D, López-Arnau R. Repeated administration of N-ethyl-pentedrone induces increased aggression and impairs social exploration after withdrawal in mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2022; 117:110562. [PMID: 35500841 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
N-ethyl-pentedrone (NEPD, 2-(ethylamino)-1-phenyl-1-pentanone) is one of the latest synthetic cathinone derivatives that emerged into the illicit drug market. This drug has psychostimulant properties and has been related with several intoxications and even fatalities. However, information about the consequences of its acute and repeated consumption is lacking. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate the behavioral effects after both acute and repeated NEPD exposure as well as the neurochemical changes. Male OF1 mice were treated with an acute dose (1, 3 or 10 mg/kg, i.p.) or received repeated injections of these doses (twice/day, 5 days) of NEPD. Shortly after drug-exposure or during drug-withdrawal, anxiety-like behavior, aggressiveness, social interaction, depressive-like symptoms, body weight and temperature were assessed. Also, monoamine synthesis enzymes, levels of neurotransmitters and their precursors and main metabolites, as well as ΔFosB, were determined in striatum and prefrontal cortex from post-mortem tissue. Acute administration of NEPD induced anxiolytic effects and reduced social exploration whereas during withdrawal after repeated administration the anxiolytic effect had vanished, and the reduced social exploration was still present and accompanied with increased aggressive behavior. Moreover, NEPD (10 mg/kg) induced slight hyperthermia and reduced weight gain during the repeated administration, whereas increased locomotor activity and lack of depressive symptoms were found during withdrawal. This was accompanied by increased plasma corticosterone and decrease in striatal dopamine. Finally, the long-lasting and robust increase in ΔFosB levels found in striatum after NEPD chronic exposure suggests a high risk of dependence. The increased aggressivity and locomotor activity, together with this potential of inducing dependence justify a warning about the risks of consumption of NEPD if translated to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Espinosa-Velasco
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - Marina D Reguilón
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marina Bellot
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Berzosa
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristian Gómez-Canela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Rodríguez-Arias
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain.
| | - Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Spain
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Chen Y, Pu Q, Yu F, Ding X, Sun Y, Guo Q, Shi J, Zhang J, Abliz Z. Comprehensive quantitative method for neurotransmitters to study the activity of a sedative-hypnotic candidate using microdialysis and LC×LC-MS/MS. Talanta 2022; 245:123418. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Serefko A, Bielecka-Papierz G, Talarek S, Szopa A, Skałecki P, Szewczyk B, Radziwoń-Zaleska M, Poleszak E. Central Effects of the Designer Drug Mephedrone in Mice-Basic Studies. Brain Sci 2022; 12:189. [PMID: 35203952 PMCID: PMC8870446 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12020189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone belongs to the "party drugs" thanks to its psychostimulant effects, similar to the ones observed after amphetamines. Though mephedrone is used worldwide by humans and in laboratory animals, not all properties of this drug have been discovered yet. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to expand the knowledge about mephedrone's activity in living organisms. A set of behavioral tests (i.e., measurement of the spontaneous locomotor activity, rotarod, chimney, elevated plus maze with its modification, novel object recognition, and pentylenetetrazol seizure tests) were carried out in male albino Swiss mice. Different dose ranges of mephedrone (0.05-5 mg/kg) were administered. We demonstrated that mephedrone at a dose of 5 mg/kg rapidly increased the spontaneous locomotor activity of the tested mice and its repeated administration led to the development of tolerance to these effects. Mephedrone showed the anxiolytic-like potential and improved spatial memory, but it did not affect recognition memory. Moreover, the drug seemed not to have any anticonvulsant or proconvulsant activity. In conclusion, mephedrone induces many central effects. It easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and peaks in the brain quickly after exposure. Our experiment on inducing a hyperlocomotion effect showed that mephedrone's effects are transient and lasted for a relatively short time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Serefko
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Gabriela Bielecka-Papierz
- Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Sylwia Talarek
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Aleksandra Szopa
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Piotr Skałecki
- Department of Commodity Science and Processing of Raw Animal Materials, University of Life Sciences, 13 Akademicka Street, 20-950 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Bernadeta Szewczyk
- Department of Neurobiology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smętna Street, 31-343 Kraków, Poland;
| | | | - Ewa Poleszak
- Laboratory of Preclinical Testing, Chair and Department of Applied and Social Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, 1 Chodźki Street, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
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Espinosa-Velasco M, Reguilón MD, Bellot M, Nadal-Gratacós N, Berzosa X, Puigseslloses P, Gómez-Canela C, Rodríguez-Arias M, Pubill D, Camarasa J, Escubedo E, López-Arnau R. Behavioural and neurochemical effects after repeated administration of N-ethylpentylone (ephylone) in mice. J Neurochem 2021; 160:218-233. [PMID: 34816436 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
N-ethyl-pentylone (NEP), also known as 'ephylone' and N-ethylnorpentylone, has been identified as one of the most recent novel psychostimulants to emerge into the illicit drug market and it has been associated with some intoxications and even fatalities. However, little is known about the consequences of its repeated consumption as well as the role of the monoaminergic system in such consequences. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate the neurochemical profile and the behavioural effects after both acute and repeated NEP exposure. Male OF1 mice were acutely (1, 3, 10 mg/kg, i.p.) or repeatedly (1, 3, 10 mg/kg, i.p., 5 days, twice/day) exposed to NEP, and anxiety-like behaviour, aggressiveness, social interaction, depressive-like symptoms, body temperature, changes in monoaminergic enzymes and neurotransmitters levels as well as ΔFosB in striatum and prefrontal cortex (PFC) from post-mortem tissue were analysed short after drug-exposure or during drug-withdrawal. Acute administration of NEP induced anxiolytic effects but also an aggressive behaviour and social exploration deficits in mice, which persist during NEP-withdrawal. Moreover, NEP induced hyperthermia as well as depressive-like symptoms after repeated administrations that may be related to the decrease in serotonin and noradrenaline levels observed in striatum and PFC. Finally, the long-term increase in ΔFosB levels in striatum after NEP chronic exposure points to a high risk of dependence. Altogether indicates that NEP consumption induces different neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders accompanied by changes in the monoaminergic system, posing a threat to public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Espinosa-Velasco
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marina D Reguilón
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marina Bellot
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Berzosa
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Puigseslloses
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristian Gómez-Canela
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Applied (Chromatography Section), School of Engineering, Institut Químic de Sarrià - Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Rodríguez-Arias
- Unit of Research Psychobiology of Drug Dependence, Department of Psychobiology, Facultad de Psicología, Universitat de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raúl López-Arnau
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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6
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Tirri M, Frisoni P, Bilel S, Arfè R, Trapella C, Fantinati A, Corli G, Marchetti B, De-Giorgio F, Camuto C, Mazzarino M, Gaudio RM, Serpelloni G, Schifano F, Botrè F, Marti M. Worsening of the Toxic Effects of (±) Cis-4,4'-DMAR Following Its Co-Administration with (±) Trans-4,4'-DMAR: Neuro-Behavioural, Physiological, Immunohistochemical and Metabolic Studies in Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168771. [PMID: 34445476 PMCID: PMC8395767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
4,4’-Dimethylaminorex (4,4’-DMAR) is a new synthetic stimulant, and only a little information has been made available so far regarding its pharmaco-toxicological effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the systemic administration of both the single (±)cis (0.1–60 mg/kg) and (±)trans (30 and 60 mg/kg) stereoisomers and their co-administration (e.g., (±)cis at 1, 10 or 60 mg/kg + (±)trans at 30 mg/kg) in mice. Moreover, we investigated the effect of 4,4′-DMAR on the expression of markers of oxidative/nitrosative stress (8-OHdG, iNOS, NT and NOX2), apoptosis (Smac/DIABLO and NF-κB), and heat shock proteins (HSP27, HSP70, HSP90) in the cerebral cortex. Our study demonstrated that the (±)cis stereoisomer dose-dependently induced psychomotor agitation, sweating, salivation, hyperthermia, stimulated aggression, convulsions and death. Conversely, the (±)trans stereoisomer was ineffective whilst the stereoisomers’ co-administration resulted in a worsening of the toxic (±)cis stereoisomer effects. This trend of responses was confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis on the cortex. Finally, we investigated the potentially toxic effects of stereoisomer co-administration by studying urinary excretion. The excretion study showed that the (±)trans stereoisomer reduced the metabolism of the (±)cis form and increased its amount in the urine, possibly reflecting its increased plasma levels and, therefore, the worsening of its toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Tirri
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Paolo Frisoni
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Raffaella Arfè
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Claudio Trapella
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.T.); (A.F.)
| | - Anna Fantinati
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.T.); (A.F.)
| | - Giorgia Corli
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Beatrice Marchetti
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Fabio De-Giorgio
- Department of Health Care Surveillance and Bioetics, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Cristian Camuto
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
| | - Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
| | - Rosa Maria Gaudio
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Giovanni Serpelloni
- Neuroscience Clinical Center & TMS Unit, 37138 Verona, Italy;
- Department of Psychiatry in the College of Medicine, Drug Policy Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK;
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Synathlon, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Marti
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00186 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence:
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Designer Cathinones N-Ethylhexedrone and Buphedrone Show Different In Vitro Neurotoxicity and Mice Behaviour Impairment. Neurotox Res 2020; 39:392-412. [PMID: 32535718 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-020-00229-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
N-Ethylhexedrone (NEH) and buphedrone (Buph) are emerging synthetic cathinones (SC) with limited information about their detrimental effects within central nervous system. Objectives: To distinguish mice behavioural changes by NEH and Buph and validate their differential harmful impact on human neurons and microglia. In vivo safety data showed the typical induced behaviour of excitation and stereotypies with 4-64 mg/kg, described for other SC. Buph additionally produced jumping and aggressiveness signs, while NEH caused retropulsion and circling. Transient reduction in body-weight gain was obtained with NEH at 16 mg/kg and induced anxiolytic-like behaviour mainly with Buph. Both drugs generated place preference shift in mice at 4 and 16 mg/kg, suggestive of abuse potential. In addition, mice withdrawn NEH displayed behaviour suggestive of depression, not seen with Buph. When tested at 50-400 μM in human nerve cell lines, NEH and Buph caused neuronal viability loss at 100 μM, but only NEH produced similar results in microglia, indicating different cell susceptibilities. NEH mainly induced microglial late apoptosis/necrosis, while Buph caused early apoptosis. NEH was unique in triggering microglia shorter/thicker branches indicative of cell activation, and more effective in increasing microglial lysosomal biogenesis (100 μM vs. 400 μM Buph), though both produced the same effect on neurons at 400 μM. These findings indicate that NEH and Buph exert neuro-microglia toxicities by distinct mechanisms and highlight NEH as a specific inducer of microglia activation. Buph and NEH showed in vivo/in vitro neurotoxicities but enhanced specific NEH-induced behavioural and neuro-microglia dysfunctionalities pose safety concerns over that of Buph.
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Carratalá-Ros C, López-Cruz L, SanMiguel N, Ibáñez-Marín P, Martínez-Verdú A, Salamone JD, Correa M. Preference for Exercise vs. More Sedentary Reinforcers: Validation of an Animal Model of Tetrabenazine-Induced Anergia. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 13:289. [PMID: 32082126 PMCID: PMC7002319 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical activities can have intrinsic motivational or reinforcing properties. The choice to engage in voluntary physical activity is undertaken in relation to the selection of other alternatives, such as sedentary behaviors, drugs, or food intake. The mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system plays a critical role in behavioral activation or exertion of effort, and DA antagonism or depletion induces anergia in effort-based decision-making tasks. However, little is known about the neural mechanisms underlying the decision-making processes that establish preferences for sedentary vs. activity-based reinforcers. In the present work with male CD1 mice, we evaluated the effect of tetrabenazine (TBZ), a DA-depleting agent, on a three-choice T-maze task developed to assess preference between reinforcers with different behavioral activation requirements and sensory properties [i.e., a running wheel (RW) vs. sweet pellets or a neutral nonsocial odor]. We also studied the effects of TBZ on the forced swim test (FST), which measures climbing and swimming in a stressful setting, and on anxiety tests [dark-light (DL) box and elevated plus maze (EPM)]. In the three-choice task, TBZ reduced time running in the wheel but increased time spent consuming sucrose, thus indicating reduced activation but relatively intact sucrose reinforcement. The effect of TBZ was not mimicked by motivational manipulations that change the value of the reinforcers, such as making the RW aversive or harder to move, food-restricting the animals, inducing a binge-like eating pattern, or introducing social odors. In the FST, TBZ decreased time climbing (most active behavior) and increased immobility but did not affect anxiety in the DL or EPM. These results indicate that the three-choice T-maze task could be useful for assessing DA modulation of preferences for exercise based on activation and effort requirements, differentiating those effects from changes in preference produced by altering physical requirements, food restriction state, and stress during testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Carratalá-Ros
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - Laura López-Cruz
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - Noemí SanMiguel
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - Patricia Ibáñez-Marín
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - Andrea Martínez-Verdú
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - John D Salamone
- Behavioral Neuroscience Division, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Mercè Correa
- Àrea de Psicobiologia, Campus de Riu Sec, Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
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9
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Effects of N-ethylpentylone on locomotor activity and anxiety-like behavior in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2019; 30:500-505. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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10
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Leyrer-Jackson JM, Nagy EK, Olive MF. Cognitive deficits and neurotoxicity induced by synthetic cathinones: is there a role for neuroinflammation? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1079-1095. [PMID: 30368582 PMCID: PMC6486871 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5067-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The number of synthetic derivatives of cathinone, the primary psychoactive alkaloid found in Catha edulis (khat), has risen exponentially in the past decade. Synthetic cathinones (frequently referred to as "bath salts") produce adverse cognitive and behavioral sequelae, share similar pharmacological mechanisms of action with traditional psychostimulants, and may therefore trigger similar cellular events that give rise to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. OBJECTIVES In this review, we provide a brief overview of synthetic cathinones, followed by a summary of cognitive deficits in animals and humans that have been documented following acute or repeated exposure. We also summarize growing evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies for synthetic cathinone-induced neurotoxicity, and provide a working hypothetic model of potential cellular mechanisms. RESULTS Synthetic cathinones produce varying effects on markers of monoaminergic terminal function and can increase the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, induce apoptotic signaling, and cause neurodegeneration and cytotoxicity. We hypothesize that these effects result from biochemical events similar to those induced by traditional psychostimulants. However, empirical evidence for the ability of synthetic cathinones to induce neuroinflammatory processes is currently lacking. CONCLUSIONS Like their traditional psychostimulant counterparts, synthetic cathinones appear to induce neurocognitive dysfunction and cytotoxicity, which are dependent on drug type, dose, frequency, and time following exposure. However, additional studies on synthetic cathinone-induced neuroinflammation are clearly needed, as are investigations into the neurochemical and neuroimmune mechanisms underlying their neurotoxic effects. Such endeavors may lead to novel therapeutic avenues to promote recovery in habitual synthetic cathinone users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Foster Olive
- Correspondence to: M. Foster Olive, Ph.D. Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S. McAllister Ave. Tempe, AZ 85287 USA, Phone 1-480-727-9557, Fax 1-480-965-8544,
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Benturquia N, Chevillard L, Poiré C, Roussel O, Cohier C, Declèves X, Laplanche JL, Etheve-Quelquejeu M, Chen H, Mégarbane B. Is the 3,4-methylendioxypyrovalerone/mephedrone combination responsible for enhanced stimulant effects? A rat study with investigation of the effect/concentration relationships. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:891-901. [PMID: 29971461 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The use of synthetic cathinones as recreational drugs frequently sold in combination has been increasing exponentially. However, the consequences of combining cathinones on the resulting stimulant effects and the pharmacokinetics have been poorly investigated. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To study 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV; 3 mg/kg) and mephedrone (4-MMC; 30 mg/kg)-induced effects on rat locomotor activity and pharmacokinetics, administered alone or in combination by the intragastric route. The pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using non-compartmental analysis and the relationships between the locomotor activity and drug concentrations using sigmoidal Emax modeling. RESULTS Locomotor activity significantly increased during the first hour post-administration with the MDPV/4-MMC combination in comparison to MDPV (p < 0.001) and 4-MMC (p < 0.01) alone. The pharmacokinetic profile of MDPV, but not 4-MMC, was significantly modified with the combination resulting in decreases in Cmax (16.4 ± 5.5 versus 62.2 ± 14.2 μg/L, p < 0.05) and AUC0 → ∞ (708 ± 91 versus 3316 ± 682 μg/L/min, p < 0.01) and increases in V/F (582.6 ± 136.8 versus 115.9 ± 42.7 L/kg, p < 0.05) and Cl/F (4.6 ± 0.7 versus 1.2 ± 0.4 L/kg/min, p < 0.01) in comparison to MDPV alone. The sigmoidal Emax model fitted the observed data well; MDPV being markedly more potent than 4-MMC (EC50, 0.043 versus 0.7 μmol/L). The enhancing factor representing the MDPV contribution to the alteration in the relationships between locomotor activity and 4-MMC concentrations was 0.3. CONCLUSION An MDPV/4-MMC combination results in enhanced stimulant effects in the rat, despite significant reduction in MDPV bioavailability. Enhanced effects could be explained by increased MDPV distribution and/or possible complementation at the brain dopaminergic targets. However, the exact consequences of the MDPV/4-MMC combination in humans remain to be clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Benturquia
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Lucie Chevillard
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Poiré
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Roussel
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Camille Cohier
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Xavier Declèves
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Laplanche
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Huixiong Chen
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Mégarbane
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France. .,Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France.
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Simmons SJ, Leyrer-Jackson JM, Oliver CF, Hicks C, Muschamp JW, Rawls SM, Olive MF. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Cathinone-Derived Psychostimulants. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2379-2394. [PMID: 29714473 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cathinone is a plant alkaloid found in khat leaves of perennial shrubs grown in East Africa. Similar to cocaine, cathinone elicits psychostimulant effects which are in part attributed to its amphetamine-like structure. Around 2010, home laboratories began altering the parent structure of cathinone to synthesize derivatives with mechanisms of action, potencies, and pharmacokinetics permitting high abuse potential and toxicity. These "synthetic cathinones" include 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone), 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and the empathogenic agent 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) which collectively gained international popularity following aggressive online marketing as well as availability in various retail outlets. Case reports made clear the health risks associated with these agents and, in 2012, the Drug Enforcement Agency of the United States placed a series of synthetic cathinones on Schedule I under emergency order. Mechanistically, cathinone and synthetic derivatives work by augmenting monoamine transmission through release facilitation and/or presynaptic transport inhibition. Animal studies confirm the rewarding and reinforcing properties of synthetic cathinones by utilizing self-administration, place conditioning, and intracranial self-stimulation assays and additionally show persistent neuropathological features which demonstrate a clear need to better understand this class of drugs. This Review will thus detail (i) historical context of cathinone use and the rise of "dark" synthetic derivatives, (ii) structural features and mechanisms of synthetic cathinones, (iii) behavioral effects observed clinically and in animals under controlled laboratory conditions, and (iv) neurotransmitters and circuits that may be targeted to manage synthetic cathinone abuse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Simmons
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | | | - Chicora F. Oliver
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Callum Hicks
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - John W. Muschamp
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - M. Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85281, United States
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Philogene-Khalid HL, Hicks C, Reitz AB, Liu-Chen LY, Rawls SM. Synthetic cathinones and stereochemistry: S enantiomer of mephedrone reduces anxiety- and depressant-like effects in cocaine- or MDPV-abstinent rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 2017; 178. [PMID: 28646714 PMCID: PMC5548612 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The neuropharmacological profile of the synthetic cathinone mephedrone (MEPH) is influenced by stereochemistry. Both MEPH enantiomers are monoamine transporter substrates, but R-MEPH is primarily responsible for rewarding effects of MEPH as it produces greater locomotor activation and intracranial self-stimulation than S-MEPH. S-MEPH is a 50-fold more potent 5-HT releaser than R-MEPH and does not place preference in rats. MEPH is also structurally similar to the cathinone derivative bupropion, an antidepressant and smoking cessation medication, suggesting MEPH has therapeutic and addictive properties. METHODS We tested the hypothesis that S-MEPH reduces anxiety- and depression-like behaviors in rats withdrawn from chronic cocaine or methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) using the elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swim test (FST), respectively. Rats were tested 48-h after a binge-like paradigm (3×/day for 10days in 1-h intervals) of cocaine (10mg/kg), MDPV (1mg/kg) or saline. In vitro studies assessed the receptor binding and activity of S-MEPH. KEY RESULTS Rats withdrawn from chronic cocaine or MDPV displayed an increase in anxiety- and depression-like behaviors that was antagonized by treatment with S-MEPH (10, 30mg/kg). S-MEPH displayed affinity, but not agonist activity, for 5-HT2 receptors (2A-2C) and showed negligible affinity for dopaminergic, adrenergic and nicotinic receptors. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION S-MEPH attenuated withdrawal behaviors following chronic cocaine or MDPV, perhaps through 5-HT release and/or 5-HT2 receptor interactions. The present data suggest S-MEPH may be a possible structural and pharmacological template to develop maintenance therapy for acute anxiety and depression during early withdrawal from psychostimulant abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helene L. Philogene-Khalid
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Callum Hicks
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Allen B. Reitz
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center Inc., Doylestown, PA
| | - Lee-Yuan Liu-Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Department of Pharmacology, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Center for Substance Abuse Research, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Validated methods for determination of neurotransmitters and metabolites in rodent brain tissue and extracellular fluid by reversed phase UHPLC–MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1028:120-129. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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