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Ünsal E, Duygun R, Yemeniciler İ, Bingöl E, Ceran Ö, Güntekin B. From Infancy to Childhood: A Comprehensive Review of Event- and Task-Related Brain Oscillations. Brain Sci 2024; 14:837. [PMID: 39199528 PMCID: PMC11352659 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14080837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 08/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Brain development from infancy through childhood involves complex structural and functional changes influenced by both internal and external factors. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of event and task-related brain oscillations, focusing on developmental changes across different frequency bands, including delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma. Electroencephalography (EEG) studies highlight that these oscillations serve as functional building blocks for sensory and cognitive processes, with significant variations observed across different developmental stages. Delta oscillations, primarily associated with deep sleep and early cognitive demands, gradually diminish as children age. Theta rhythms, crucial for attention and memory, display a distinct pattern in early childhood, evolving with cognitive maturation. Alpha oscillations, reflecting thalamocortical interactions and cognitive performance, increase in complexity with age. Beta rhythms, linked to active thinking and problem-solving, show developmental differences in motor and cognitive tasks. Gamma oscillations, associated with higher cognitive functions, exhibit notable changes in response to sensory stimuli and cognitive tasks. This review underscores the importance of understanding oscillatory dynamics to elucidate brain development and its implications for sensory and cognitive processing in childhood. The findings provide a foundation for future research on developmental neuroscience and potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esra Ünsal
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey; (E.Ü.); (R.D.); (İ.Y.); (E.B.)
- Neuroscience Research Center, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Rümeysa Duygun
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey; (E.Ü.); (R.D.); (İ.Y.); (E.B.)
- Neuroscience Research Center, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - İrem Yemeniciler
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey; (E.Ü.); (R.D.); (İ.Y.); (E.B.)
- Neuroscience Research Center, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Elifnur Bingöl
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey; (E.Ü.); (R.D.); (İ.Y.); (E.B.)
- Neuroscience Research Center, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ömer Ceran
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey;
| | - Bahar Güntekin
- Neuroscience Research Center, Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Biophysics, School of Medicine, Istanbul Medipol University, 34810 Istanbul, Turkey
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Turk-Browne NB, Aslin RN. Infant neuroscience: how to measure brain activity in the youngest minds. Trends Neurosci 2024; 47:338-354. [PMID: 38570212 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2024.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
The functional properties of the infant brain are poorly understood. Recent advances in cognitive neuroscience are opening new avenues for measuring brain activity in human infants. These include novel uses of existing technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG), the availability of newer technologies including functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and optically pumped magnetometry (OPM), and innovative applications of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in awake infants during cognitive tasks. In this review article we catalog these available non-invasive methods, discuss the challenges and opportunities encountered when applying them to human infants, and highlight the potential they may ultimately hold for advancing our understanding of the youngest minds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Turk-Browne
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Richard N Aslin
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Köster M, Meyer M. Down and up! Does the mu rhythm index a gating mechanism in the developing motor system? Dev Cogn Neurosci 2023; 60:101239. [PMID: 37030147 PMCID: PMC10113759 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Developmental research on action processing in the motor cortex relies on a key neural marker - a decrease in 6-12 Hz activity (coined mu suppression). However, recent evidence points towards an increase in mu power, specific for the observation of others' actions. Complementing the findings on mu suppression, this raises the critical question for the functional role of the mu rhythm in the developing motor system. We here discuss a potential solution to this seeming controversy by suggesting a gating function of the mu rhythm: A decrease in mu power may index the facilitation, while an increase may index the inhibition of motor processes, which are critical during action observation. This account may advance our conception of action understanding in early brain development and points towards critical directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Köster
- University of Regensburg, Institute of Psychology, Sedanstraße 1, 93055 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Marlene Meyer
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, USA.
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Larson LM, Feuerriegel D, Hasan MI, Braat S, Jin J, Tipu SMU, Shiraji S, Tofail F, Biggs BA, Hamadani J, Johnson K, Pasricha SR, Bode S. Supplementation With Iron Syrup or Iron-Containing Multiple Micronutrient Powders Alters Resting Brain Activity in Bangladeshi Children. J Nutr 2023; 153:352-363. [PMID: 36913472 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2022.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anemia and iron deficiency have been associated with poor child cognitive development. A key rationale for the prevention of anemia using supplementation with iron has been the benefits to neurodevelopment. However, little causal evidence exists for these gains. OBJECTIVES We aimed to examine effects of supplementation with iron or multiple micronutrient powders (MNPs) on brain activity measures using resting electroencephalography (EEG). METHODS Children included in this neurocognitive substudy were randomly selected from the Benefits and Risks of Iron Supplementation in Children study, a double-blind, double-dummy, individually randomized, parallel-group trial in Bangladesh, in which children, starting at 8 mo of age, received 3 mo of daily iron syrup, MNPs, or placebo. Resting brain activity was recorded using EEG immediately after intervention (month 3) and after a further 9-month follow-up (month 12). We derived EEG band power measures for delta, theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands. Linear regression models were used to compare the effect of each intervention with that of placebo on the outcomes. RESULTS Data from 412 children at month 3 and 374 at month 12 were analyzed. At baseline, 43.9% were anemic and 26.7% were iron deficient. Immediately after intervention, iron syrup, but not MNPs, increased the mu alpha-band power, a measure that is associated with maturity and the production of motor actions (iron vs. placebo: mean difference = 0.30; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.50 μV2; P = 0.003; false discovery rate adjusted P = 0.015). Despite effects on hemoglobin and iron status, effects were not observed on the posterior alpha, beta, delta, and theta bands, nor were effects sustained at the 9-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS The effect size for immediate effects on the mu alpha-band power is comparable in magnitude with psychosocial stimulation interventions and poverty reduction strategies. However, overall, we did not find evidence for long-lasting changes in resting EEG power spectra from iron interventions in young Bangladeshi children. This trial was registered at www.anzctr.org.au as ACTRN12617000660381.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila M Larson
- Department of Health Promotion, Education, and Behavior, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA; Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases at the Peter Doherty Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Daniel Feuerriegel
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mohammed Imrul Hasan
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Sabine Braat
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Infectious Diseases at the Peter Doherty Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Centre for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jerry Jin
- Department of Infectious Diseases at the Peter Doherty Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sm Mulk Uddin Tipu
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Shamima Shiraji
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Fahmida Tofail
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Beverley-Ann Biggs
- Department of Infectious Diseases at the Peter Doherty Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; The Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jena Hamadani
- Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Katherine Johnson
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sant-Rayn Pasricha
- Population Health and Immunity Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Diagnostic Haematology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; Diagnostic Haematology and Clinical Haematology, The Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre and The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stefan Bode
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Tang ZM, Oouchida Y, Wang MX, Dou ZL, Izumi SI. Observing errors in a combination of error and correct models favors observational motor learning. BMC Neurosci 2022; 23:4. [PMID: 34983385 PMCID: PMC8729145 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-021-00685-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Imitative learning is highly effective from infancy to old age; however, little is known about the effects of observing errors during imitative learning. This study aimed to examine how observing errors affected imitative learning performance to maximize its effect. Methods In the pre-training session, participants were instructed to pinch at a target force (8 N) with auditory feedback regarding generated force while they watched videos of someone pinching a sponge at the target force. In the pre-test, participants pinched at the target force and did not view a model or receive auditory feedback. In Experiment 1, in the main training session, participants imitated models while they watched videos of pinching at either the incorrect force (error-mixed condition) or target force (correct condition). Then, the exact force generated was measured without receiving auditory feedback or viewing a model. In Experiment 2, using the same procedures, newly recruited participants watched videos of pinching at incorrect forces (4 and 24 N) as the error condition and the correct force as the correct condition. Results In Experiment 1, the average force was closer to the target force in the error-mixed condition than in the correct condition. In Experiment 2, the average force in the correct condition was closer to the target force than in the error condition. Conclusion Our findings indicated that observing error actions combined with correct actions affected imitation motor learning positively as error actions contained information on things to avoid in the target action. It provides further information to enhance imitative learning in mixed conditions compared to that with correct action alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Ming Tang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yuedong Hospital, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Meizhou, 514000, China. .,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China. .,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Yutaka Oouchida
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan.,Department of Education, Osaka Kyoiku University, Osaka, 582-8582, Japan
| | - Meng-Xin Wang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Zu-Lin Dou
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Yuedong Hospital, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Meizhou, 514000, China.,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Shin-Ichi Izumi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan.,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Sendai, 980-8575, Japan
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Meyer M, Chung H, Debnath R, Fox N, Woodward AL. Social context shapes neural processing of others' actions in 9-month-old infants. J Exp Child Psychol 2021; 213:105260. [PMID: 34390926 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2021.105260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
From infancy, neural processes for perceiving others' actions and producing one's own actions overlap (neural mirroring). Adults and children show enhanced mirroring in social interactions. Yet, whether social context affects mirroring in infancy, a time when processing others' actions is crucial for action learning, remains unclear. We examined whether turn-taking, an early form of social interaction, enhanced 9-month-olds' neural mirroring. We recorded electroencephalography while 9-month-olds were grasping (execution) and observing live grasps (observation). In this design, half of the infants observed and acted in alternation (turn-taking condition), whereas the other half observed several times in a row before acting (blocked condition). Replicating previous findings, infants showed significant 6- to 9-Hz mu suppression (indicating motor activation) during execution and observation (n = 24). In addition, a condition (turn-taking or blocked) by time (action start or end) interaction indicated that infants engaged in turn-taking (n = 9), but not in the blocked context (n = 15), showed more mirroring when observing the action start compared with the action end. Exploratory analyses further suggest that (a) there is higher visual-motor functional connectivity in turn-taking toward the action's end, (b) mirroring relates to later visual-motor connectivity, and (c) visual attention as indexed by occipital alpha is enhanced in turn-taking compared with the blocked context. Together, this suggests that the neural processing of others' actions is modulated by the social context in infancy and that turn-taking may be particularly effective in engaging infants' action perception system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Meyer
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA; Donders Institute, Radboud University, 6525 GD Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - Haerin Chung
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Ranjan Debnath
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nathan Fox
- Child Development Lab, Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Amanda L Woodward
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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Young infants process prediction errors at the theta rhythm. Neuroimage 2021; 236:118074. [PMID: 33878378 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Examining how young infants respond to unexpected events is key to our understanding of their emerging concepts about the world around them. From a predictive processing perspective, it is intriguing to investigate how the infant brain responds to unexpected events (i.e., prediction errors), because they require infants to refine their predictions about the environment. Here, to better understand prediction error processes in the infant brain, we presented 9-month-olds (N = 36) a variety of physical and social events with unexpected versus expected outcomes, while recording their electroencephalogram (EEG). We found a pronounced response in the ongoing 4-5 Hz theta rhythm for the processing of unexpected (in contrast to expected) events, for a prolonged time window (2 s) and across all scalp-recorded electrodes. The condition difference in the theta rhythm was not related to the condition difference in infants' event-related activity to unexpected (versus expected) events in the negative central (Nc) component (0.4-0.6 s), a component, which is commonly analyzed in infant violation of expectation studies using EEG. These findings constitute critical evidence that the theta rhythm is involved in the processing of prediction errors from very early in human brain development. We discuss how the theta rhythm may support infants' refinement of basic concepts about the physical and social environment.
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The value of subsequent memory paradigms in uncovering neural mechanisms of early social learning. Neuroimage 2021; 234:117978. [PMID: 33819613 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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de Klerk CCJM, Kampis D. Is motor cortex deactivation during action observation related to imitation in infancy? A commentary on Köster et al., 2020. Neuroimage 2021; 234:117848. [PMID: 33582275 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensorimotor alpha suppression is present both during the observation and execution of actions, and is a commonly used tool to investigate neural mirroring in infancy. Köster et al. (2020) used this measure to investigate infants' motor cortex activation during the observation of action demonstrations and its relationship to subsequent imitation of these actions. Contrary to what is implied in the paper and to common findings in the literature, the study's results appear to suggest that the motor system was deactivated during the observation of the actions, and that greater deactivation during action observation was associated with a greater tendency to copy the action. Here we present potential methodological explanations for these unexpected findings and discuss them in relation to common recommendations in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dora Kampis
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Meyer M, Endedijk HM, Hunnius S. Intention to imitate: Top-down effects on 4-year-olds' neural processing of others' actions. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 45:100851. [PMID: 32890960 PMCID: PMC7481529 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
From early in life, we activate our neural motor system when observing others' actions. In adults, this so-called mirroring is modulated not only by the saliency of an action but also by top-down processes, like the intention to imitate it. Yet, it remains unknown whether neural processing of others' actions can be modulated by top-down processes in young children who heavily rely on learning from observing and imitating others but also still develop top-down control skills. Using EEG, we examined whether the intention to imitate increases 4-year-olds' motor activation while observing others' actions. In a within-subjects design, children observed identical actions preceded by distinct instructions, namely to either imitate the action or to name the toy's color. As motor activation index, children's alpha (7-12 Hz) and beta (16-20 Hz) power over motor cortices was analyzed. The results revealed more motor activity reflected by significantly lower beta power for the Imitation compared to the Color-naming Task. The same conditional difference, although differently located, was detected for alpha power. Together, our results show that children's neural processing of others' actions was amplified by their intention to imitate the action. Thus, already at age 4 top-down attention to others' actions can modulate neural action processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Meyer
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, the Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, USA.
| | | | - Sabine Hunnius
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, the Netherlands
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Importance of body representations in social-cognitive development: New insights from infant brain science. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2020; 254:25-48. [PMID: 32859291 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
There is significant interest in the ways the human body, both one's own and that of others, is represented in the human brain. In this chapter we focus on body representations in infancy and synthesize relevant findings from both infant cognitive neuroscience and behavioral experiments. We review six experiments in infant neuroscience that have used novel EEG and MEG methods to explore infant neural body maps. We then consider results from behavioral studies of social imitation and examine what they contribute to our understanding of infant body representations at a psychological level. Finally, we interweave both neuroscience and behavioral lines of research to ground new theoretical claims about early infant social cognition. We propose, based on the evidence, that young infants can represent the bodily acts of others and their own bodily acts in commensurate terms. Infants initially recognize correspondences between self and other-they perceive that others are "like me" in terms of bodies and bodily actions. This capacity for registering and using self-other equivalence mappings has far-reaching implications for mechanisms of developmental change. Infants can learn about the affordances and powers of their own body by watching adults' actions and their causal consequences. Reciprocally, infants can enrich their understanding of other people's internal states by taking into account the way they themselves feel when they perform similar acts. The faces, bodies, and matching actions of people are imbued with unique meaning because they can be mapped to the infant's own body and behavior.
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