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Ghazvini H, Tirgar F, Khodamoradi M, Akbarnejad Z, Rafaiee R, Seyedhosseini Tamijani SM, Asadi-Shekaari M, Esmaeilpour K, Sheibani V. Ovarian hormones prevent methamphetamine-induced anxiety-related behaviors and neuronal damage in ovariectomized rats. Neurosci Lett 2021; 746:135652. [PMID: 33482310 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) may cause long‒lasting neurotoxic effects and cognitive impairment. On the other hand, the ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone have neuroprotective effects. In the current study, we aimed to examine the effects of estrogen and progesterone on anxiety‒like behavior and neuronal damage in METH‒exposed ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Three weeks after ovariectomy, the animals received estrogen (1 mg/kg, i.p.), or progesterone (8 mg/kg, i.p.), or estrogen plus progesterone (with the same doses), or vehicle during 7 consecutive days (days 22-28). On day 28, OVX rats were exposed to a single‒day METH regimen (6 mg/kg, four s.c. Injections, with 2 h interval) 30 min after the hormone treatment. The next day (on day 29), the animals were assessed for anxiety‒related behaviors using the open field and elevated plus‒maze tasks. The animals were then sacrificed and brain water content, cell apoptosis and expression of IL-1β were evaluated. The findings showed that treatment with estrogen or progesterone alone in METH‒exposed rats significantly improved hyperthermia, anxiety‒like behavior, neuronal damage, and inflammation in the CA1 area. Also, treatment with estrogen plus progesterone improved hyperthermia and brain edema. Taken together, the findings suggest that treatment with ovarian hormones can partially prevent hyperthermia and anxiety‒related behaviors induced by METH in OVX rats, which could be accompanied by their neuroprotective effects in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Ghazvini
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Tirgar
- Department of Neuroscience and Addiction Studies, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Khodamoradi
- Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Zeinab Akbarnejad
- ENT and Head and Neck Research Center and Department, Hazrat Rasoul Akram Hospital, The Five Senses Health Institute, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Raheleh Rafaiee
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | | | - Majid Asadi-Shekaari
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Esmaeilpour
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Vahid Sheibani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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Mamat R, Nasrulddin NAA, Yusoff NAM. Continued Use of Illicit Substance among Methadone Treatment Patients in Primary Health Care Clinics in East Coast Region of Malaysia. ALCOHOLISM TREATMENT QUARTERLY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/07347324.2019.1672600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruzmayuddin Mamat
- Kuantan Health District Office, Ministry of Health Malaysia, Pejabat Kesihatan Daerah, Kuantan
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Kang Y, Lee JH, Seo YH, Jang JH, Jeong CH, Lee S, Jeong GS, Park B. Epicatechin Prevents Methamphetamine-Induced Neuronal Cell Death via Inhibition of ER Stress. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2019; 27:145-151. [PMID: 30514054 PMCID: PMC6430228 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2018.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) acts strongly on the nervous system and damages neurons and is known to cause neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. Flavonoids, polyphenolic compounds present in green tea, red wine and several fruits exhibit antioxidant properties that protect neurons from oxidative damage and promote neuronal survival. Especially, epicatechin (EC) is a powerful flavonoid with antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor and antimutagenic effects as well as antioxidant effects. We therefore investigated whether EC could prevent METH-induced neurotoxicity using HT22 hippocampal neuronal cells. EC reduced METH-induced cell death of HT22 cells. In addition, we observed that EC abrogated the activation of ERK, p38 and inhibited the expression of CHOP and DR4. EC also reduced METH-induced ROS accumulation and MMP. These results suggest that EC may protect HT22 hippocampal neurons against METH-induced cell death by reducing ER stress and mitochondrial damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youra Kang
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Ha Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ho Seo
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hee Jang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul-Ho Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Sooyeun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Gil-Saeng Jeong
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoungduck Park
- College of Pharmacy, Keimyung University, Daegu 42601, Republic of Korea
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Xu J, Zhang Z, Liu R, Sun Y, Liu H, Nie Z, Zhao X, Pu X. Function of complement factor H and imaging of small molecules by MALDI-MSI in a methamphetamine behavioral sensitization model. Behav Brain Res 2019; 364:233-244. [PMID: 30731099 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND At present, the harm of new-type drug, methamphetamine (METH), has gradually exceeded that of the traditional opioid drugs, and METH abuse has become a serious public health and social problem. In our previous study, complement factor H (CFH) was found to be upregulated in the sera of METH-addicted patients and rats and in certain brain regions in the rats. METHODS We used ELISA and immunofluorescence to confirm the changes in CFH in the serum and hippocampus of a METH behavioral sensitization mouse model, and C1q expression was also detected by immunofluorescence in the hippocampus. We aimed to elucidate the involvement of CFH and C1q in the mechanism of METH addiction. We also detected the distribution of various small molecules by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) in select brain regions: the nucleus accumbens, the hippocampus and the ventral tegmental area. RESULTS The expression of CFH was upregulated in the serum and hippocampus of METH behavioral sensitization model mice, consistent with our previous research on conditioned place preference rats. In contrast, C1q decreased dramatically in the mossy fibers of the hippocampus. The results of small-molecule imaging by MALDI-MSI showed that the levels of K+, antioxidants, neurotransmitters, and ATP metabolism-related molecules were altered in different regions. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate the involvement of the complement system in the mechanism of METH addiction and validate the presence of oxidative stress, energy metabolism changes during addiction. This suggests the utility of further investigation into the above aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiamin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhilin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Runzhe Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Huihui Liu
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zongxiu Nie
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; Beijing Center for Mass Spectrometry, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaoping Pu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China; Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
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Giorgetti R, Tagliabracci A, Schifano F, Zaami S, Marinelli E, Busardò FP. When "Chems" Meet Sex: A Rising Phenomenon Called "ChemSex". Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:762-770. [PMID: 27855594 PMCID: PMC5771052 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666161117151148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The term "chemsex" was coined to indicate the voluntary intake of psychoactive and non psychoactive drugs in the context of recreational settings to facilitate and/or to enhance sexual intercourses mostly among men who have sex with other men (MSM). OBJECTIVE The authors aimed to review the mechanisms of action, the toxicity and the pattern of use and abuse of substances involved in "chemsex" practice together with the sociocultural background underlying it and the health-related consequences that they may have. RESULTS Gamma-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone,1,4-butanediol, mephedrone, methamphetamine, sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil and alkyl nitrites have been described in their role of "chemsex drugs" including pharmacological action and in their implication to impair capacities to chose sexual partners and consensual sex. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that sexual activity over protracted length of time under the influence of chemsex drugs can result in rectal trauma or penile abrasions and a significant increase of the risk of transmission of sexual transmitted diseases, especially in case of condomless intercourses, which are frequent in this context, representing therefore a serious health threat. CONCLUSION One of the major problems to establish health policy priority interventions for chemsex is the lack of available epidemiological data on the issue. Finally, social actions should be taken in order to break down the barriers that currently exist among chemsex drug users in accessing services, including the shame and stigma often associated with drug use. In conclusion, more specific resources to face high risks of infections and HIV transmission are required in bisexual and homosexual individuals having SUID: sex under the influence of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Giorgetti
- Section of Legal Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Simona Zaami
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology (UoFT), Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Ghazvini H, Khaksari M, Esmaeilpour K, Shabani M, Asadi-Shekaari M, Khodamoradi M, Sheibani V. Effects of treatment with estrogen and progesterone on the methamphetamine-induced cognitive impairment in ovariectomized rats. Neurosci Lett 2016; 619:60-7. [PMID: 26944454 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.02.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is one of the most powerful psychostimulant that leads to long lasting cognitive impairment. Earlier researches demonstrated that ovarian hormones including estrogen and progesterone ameliorate cognitive function against various central nervous system disorders. Moreover, recent studies demonstrate a neuroprotective role against methamphetamine toxicity. In current study the effects of estrogen and progesterone alone or in combination, on spatial learning and memory in METH-exposed ovariectomized (OVX) rats are investigated. Three weeks after ovariectomy, the animals were treated by estrogen (1mg/kg, i.p.) and progesterone (8mg/kg, i.p.) alone and in combination or vehicle during 14 consecutive days. On the 28th day, rats were exposed to a single-day METH regimens (four injections of 6mg/kg, s.c, at 2h intervals) 30min after the hormones treatment. Finally, spatial learning and memory were examined using the Morris water maze 2days after the last treatment. The findings showed that estrogen and progesterone did not have significant effect on spatial learning and memory in non METH-exposed OVX rats. The treatment with estrogen and progesterone alone in METH-exposed rats, significantly improved spatial learning and memory impairment. On the other hand, the cognitive performance of animals that received combination of estrogen plus progesterone in METH-exposed rats did not significantly differ from that of METH-exposed animals that received vehicle injections. Taken together, the present findings suggest that treatment with ovarian hormones can partially improve spatial learning and memory deficits induced by methamphetamine in OVX rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Ghazvini
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Khaksari
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Esmaeilpour
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Shabani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Majid Asadi-Shekaari
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mehdi Khodamoradi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Vahid Sheibani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.
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Dixon TC, Ngak S, Stein E, Carrico A, Page K, Maher L. Pharmacology, physiology and performance: occupational drug use and HIV risk among female entertainment and sex workers in Cambodia. Harm Reduct J 2015; 12:33. [PMID: 26472570 PMCID: PMC4608294 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-015-0068-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Cambodia, HIV prevalence among female entertainment and sex workers (FESW) is up to twenty times higher than in the general population. Use of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) has been associated with increased risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in key populations, including FESW. While one in four Cambodian FESW report recent ATS use, little attention has been paid to how the occupational contexts of sex work shape patterns of use. Currently, no HIV prevention interventions target ATS use in this population. METHODS We conducted in-depth interviews with FESW (n = 30) with the goal of exploring experiences and motivations for ATS use and informing the development of a conditional cash transfer (CCT) intervention designed to reduce ATS use and HIV risk. Interviews were conducted and transcribed in Khmer and translated into English. Interview narratives were read and re-read and emerging themes reviewed and refined to develop an initial coding scheme. Data were formally coded using both open and axial coding to clarify and consolidate initial themes. RESULTS The most common driver of ATS use among FESW was increased functionality. ATS was seen as a performance enhancer, acting as an appetite suppressant and enabling women to meet the physiological demands of sex work, including long working hours, multiple clients and extended sexual transactions. While our results are consistent with studies linking ATS use to heightened sexual risk, via unprotected and/or prolonged sex, for women in the current study, the negative consequences of ATS use were outweighed by perceived functional benefits. CONCLUSIONS FESW in Cambodia harness the pharmacological properties of ATS to meet the physiological demands of sex work in a context of limited economic opportunities. There is an urgent need to both provide Cambodian women with options for income generation that do not risk their health and to better regulate the conditions of sex work to provide safer working environments. Structural and economic interventions, including CCT programmes, combined with awareness and enforcement of sex workers' rights, are also necessary to facilitate harm reduction and occupational health and work safety within the Cambodian sex and entertainment industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ellen Stein
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Adam Carrico
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | | | - Lisa Maher
- Kirby Institute for Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Australia, Sydney, Australia.
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Šlamberová R, Vrajová M, Schutová B, Mertlová M, Macúchová E, Nohejlová K, Hrubá L, Puskarčíková J, Bubeníková-Valešová V, Yamamotová A. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure induces long-lasting alterations in memory and development of NMDA receptors in the hippocampus. Physiol Res 2015; 63:S547-58. [PMID: 25669686 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.932926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Since close relationship was shown between drug addiction and memory formation, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of interaction between prenatal methamphetamine (MA) exposure and MA treatment in adulthood on spatial and non-spatial memory and on the structure of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the hippocampus. Adult male rats prenatally exposed to MA (5 mg/kg) or saline were tested in adulthood. Non-spatial memory was examined in the Object Recognition Test (ORT) and spatial memory in the Object Location Test (OLT) and in the Memory Retention Test (MRT) conducted in the Morris Water Maze (MWM), respectively. Based on the type of the memory test animals were injected either acutely (ORT, OLT) or long-term (MWM) with MA (1 mg/kg). After each testing, animals were sacrificed and brains were removed. The hippocampus was then examined in Western Blot analysis for occurrence of different NMDA receptors' subtypes. Our results demonstrated that prenatal MA exposure affects the development of the NMDA receptors in the hippocampus that might correspond with improvement of spatial memory tested in adulthood in the MWM. On the other hand, the effect of prenatal MA exposure on non-spatial memory examined in the ORT was the opposite. In addition, we showed that the effect of MA administration in adulthood on NMDA receptors is influenced by prenatal MA exposure, which seems to correlate with the spatial memory examined in the OLT.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Šlamberová
- Department of Normal, Pathological and Clinical Physiology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Curtin K, Fleckenstein AE, Robison RJ, Crookston MJ, Smith KR, Hanson GR. Methamphetamine/amphetamine abuse and risk of Parkinson's disease in Utah: a population-based assessment. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 146:30-8. [PMID: 25479916 PMCID: PMC4295903 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite widespread use of methamphetamine and other amphetamine-type stimulants (METH/AMPH), little is known about the long-term medical consequences of METH/AMPH abuse and dependence. Preclinical neurotoxicity findings raise public health concerns that these stimulants may damage dopamine neurons, resulting in dopamine-related disorders such as Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS A retrospective design was used to examine statewide medical records (1996 through 2011) linked to the Utah Population Database. Individuals 30 years or older on December 31, 2011 were assigned to a METH/AMPH cohort (ICD-9-CM 304.4, 305.7, 969.7, E854.2; N=4935), a cocaine cohort (ICD-9-CM 304.2, 305.6, 968.5, E855.2; N=1867) or a population cohort unexposed to drugs or alcohol for control selection. A competing-risks, proportional hazards model was used to determine whether the METH/AMPH or cocaine cohorts were at increased risk of developing PD (ICD-9-CM 332.0) or PD/parkinsonism/essential tremor (PD/PT; ICD-9-CM 332.0, 332.1, 333.0, 333.1) compared to individually sex- and age-matched controls (5:1 control to case ratio; N=34,010). RESULTS In METH/AMPH users, we observed an increased risk of PD and PD/PT (HRPD=2.8, 95%CI 1.6-4.8, P<10(-3); HRPD/PT=3.1, 95%CI 1.9-4.9, P<10(-4)) compared to population-based controls. Conversely, cocaine users exhibited no elevated risk of PD compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS We observed a near three-fold increased risk of PD in METH/AMPH users vs. controls which confirms prior observations and supports that PD risk in users may be higher than previous estimates. A suggestion that female and male users may differ in PD susceptibility warrants further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Curtin
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States; Population Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States.
| | - Annette E. Fleckenstein
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Reid J. Robison
- Intermountain Healthcare, Salt Lake City, UT 84111, United States,Utah Foundation for Biomedical Research, Provo, UT 84601, United States
| | | | - Ken R. Smith
- Population Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States,Department of Family and Consumer Studies, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Glen R. Hanson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States,School of Dentistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
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Critical role of peripheral vasoconstriction in fatal brain hyperthermia induced by MDMA (Ecstasy) under conditions that mimic human drug use. J Neurosci 2014; 34:7754-62. [PMID: 24899699 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0506-14.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
MDMA (Ecstasy) is an illicit drug used by young adults at hot, crowed "rave" parties, yet the data on potential health hazards of its abuse remain controversial. Here, we examined the effect of MDMA on temperature homeostasis in male rats under standard laboratory conditions and under conditions that simulate drug use in humans. We chronically implanted thermocouple microsensors in the nucleus accumbens (a brain reward area), temporal muscle, and facial skin to measure temperature continuously from freely moving rats. While focusing on brain hyperthermia, temperature monitoring from the two peripheral locations allowed us to evaluate the physiological mechanisms (i.e., intracerebral heat production and heat loss via skin surfaces) that underlie MDMA-induced brain temperature responses. Our data confirm previous reports on high individual variability and relatively weak brain hyperthermic effects of MDMA under standard control conditions (quiet rest, 22-23°C), but demonstrate dramatic enhancements of drug-induced brain hyperthermia during social interaction (exposure to male conspecific) and in warm environments (29°C). Importantly, we identified peripheral vasoconstriction as a critical mechanism underlying the activity- and state-dependent potentiation of MDMA-induced brain hyperthermia. Through this mechanism, which prevents proper heat dissipation to the external environment, MDMA at a moderate nontoxic dose (9 mg/kg or ~1/5 of LD50 in rats) can cause fatal hyperthermia under environmental conditions commonly encountered by humans. Our results demonstrate that doses of MDMA that are nontoxic under cool, quiet conditions can become highly dangerous under conditions that mimic recreational use of MDMA at rave parties or other hot, crowded venues.
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11
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Hauser KF, Knapp PE. Interactions of HIV and drugs of abuse: the importance of glia, neural progenitors, and host genetic factors. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 118:231-313. [PMID: 25175867 PMCID: PMC4304845 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801284-0.00009-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Considerable insight has been gained into the comorbid, interactive effects of HIV and drug abuse in the brain using experimental models. This review, which considers opiates, methamphetamine, and cocaine, emphasizes the importance of host genetics and glial plasticity in driving the pathogenic neuron remodeling underlying neuro-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and drug abuse comorbidity. Clinical findings are less concordant than experimental work, and the response of individuals to HIV and to drug abuse can vary tremendously. Host-genetic variability is important in determining viral tropism, neuropathogenesis, drug responses, and addictive behavior. However, genetic differences alone cannot account for individual variability in the brain "connectome." Environment and experience are critical determinants in the evolution of synaptic circuitry throughout life. Neurons and glia both exercise control over determinants of synaptic plasticity that are disrupted by HIV and drug abuse. Perivascular macrophages, microglia, and to a lesser extent astroglia can harbor the infection. Uninfected bystanders, especially astroglia, propagate and amplify inflammatory signals. Drug abuse by itself derails neuronal and glial function, and the outcome of chronic exposure is maladaptive plasticity. The negative consequences of coexposure to HIV and drug abuse are determined by numerous factors including genetics, sex, age, and multidrug exposure. Glia and some neurons are generated throughout life, and their progenitors appear to be targets of HIV and opiates/psychostimulants. The chronic nature of HIV and drug abuse appears to result in sustained alterations in the maturation and fate of neural progenitors, which may affect the balance of glial populations within multiple brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt F Hauser
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
| | - Pamela E Knapp
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
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Panenka WJ, Procyshyn RM, Lecomte T, MacEwan GW, Flynn SW, Honer WG, Barr AM. Methamphetamine use: a comprehensive review of molecular, preclinical and clinical findings. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 129:167-79. [PMID: 23273775 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Revised: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA) is a highly addictive psychostimulant drug that principally affects the monoamine neurotransmitter systems of the brain and results in feelings of alertness, increased energy and euphoria. The drug is particularly popular with young adults, due to its wide availability, relatively low cost, and long duration of psychoactive effects. Extended use of MA is associated with many health problems that are not limited to the central nervous system, and contribute to increased morbidity and mortality in drug users. Numerous studies, using complementary techniques, have provided evidence that chronic MA use is associated with substantial neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment. These pathological effects of the drug, combined with the addictive properties of MA, contribute to a spectrum of psychosocial issues that include medical and legal problems, at-risk behaviors and high societal costs, such as public health consequences, loss of family support and housing instability. Treatment options include pharmacological, psychological or combination therapies. The present review summarizes the key findings in the literature spanning from molecular through to clinical effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Panenka
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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13
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Couture MC, Evans JL, Sothy NS, Stein ES, Sichan K, Maher L, Page K. Correlates of amphetamine-type stimulant use and associations with HIV-related risks among young women engaged in sex work in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Drug Alcohol Depend 2012; 120:119-26. [PMID: 21820251 PMCID: PMC3226861 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Revised: 06/25/2011] [Accepted: 07/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) use has increased in Cambodia and emerged as a significant problem among female sex workers (FSWs), potentially contributing to increased risk of HIV. We examined the prevalence of ATS use and its effect on sexual risk behaviors, and sexually transmitted infections (STI) among FSWs in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. METHODS A one-year prospective study among young women engaged in sex work in brothels, entertainment establishments and on a freelance basis. Socio-demographics, sexual risks, and recent ATS use were assessed by self-report. Blood and urine samples were collected to detect HIV, Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC). Bivariate and multivariate longitudinal analyses were conducted to assess the effects of ATS use on number of sex partners, inconsistent condom use with paying partners and incident STI. RESULTS ATS use was higher among women working freelance (35.6%) and in brothels (34.8%) compared to women working in entertainment establishments (17.7%) or in multiple venues (14.8%). ATS users reported more sex partners and days drunk in the previous month. In multivariate longitudinal analysis, ATS use was associated with having a higher number of sex partners (adjusted relative ratio 1.49; 95% CI: 1.00-2.21) and incident STI (adjusted odds ratio 5.41; 95% CI: 1.15-25.48), but not inconsistent condom use with paying partner. CONCLUSION ATS users had more sex partners, high level of alcohol use, and were at increased risk of STI. Our findings underscore ATS use as an important emerging risk exposure that should be integrated into HIV prevention interventions targeting this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Claude Couture
- University of California San Francisco, Global Health Sciences, 50 Beale street, Suite 1200, San Francisco CA 94105, USA
| | | | - Neth San Sothy
- National Center for HIV/AIDS, Dermatology and STD. #245H, Sreet 6A, Phum Kean Khlang, Sangkat Prekleap Russey Keo, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Ellen S. Stein
- University of California San Francisco, Global Health Sciences, 50 Beale street, Suite 1200, San Francisco CA 94105, USA
| | - Keo Sichan
- Cambodian Women’s development Agengy, #19, Street 242, Sangkat Boeng Prolit, Khan 7 Makara, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Lisa Maher
- University of New South Wales, National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, CFI Building, Corner Boundary and West Streets, Darlinghurst NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Kimberly Page
- University of California San Francisco, Global Health Sciences, 50 Beale street, Suite 1200, San Francisco CA 94105, USA,Corresponding author: K. Page, University of California San Francisco, Global Health Sciences, 50 Beale street, Suite 1200, San Francisco CA 94105, USA., , Phone: 415-597-4954., Fax: 415-597-8299
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Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Interaction of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine and Methamphetamine During Metabolism by In Vitro Human Metabolic Enzymes and in Rats*. J Forensic Sci 2011; 57:1008-13. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02039.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Mohamed WM, Hamida SB, Cassel JC, de Vasconcelos AP, Jones BC. MDMA: Interactions with other psychoactive drugs. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 99:759-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H. Distribution measurement of amphetamine-type stimulants in organs using micropulverized extraction and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry to complement drug distribution using mass spectrometry imaging. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2011; 25:2397-2406. [PMID: 21910286 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.5145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) such as methamphetamine are widely abused and can cause toxic effects in the body. In this study, a simple and accurate analytical method for distribution measurement of drugs in organs was developed to visualize localization of ATS in organs and to complement drug distribution by mass spectrometry imaging (MSI). The brain, liver and kidney from rats to which ATS had been administered were segmented into blocks of 2×2×2 mm3 at -30°C. Each organ block was micropulverized with a stainless-steel bullet at -80°C. The concentrations of drugs in each block were measured by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. The three-dimensional distribution of drugs in a whole organ was expressed using color gradation of drug concentration after reconstruction of all blocks to the original locations. The distribution was also compared with that obtained by MSI. This method enabled measurement of drug distribution in organs with simple and clean procedures and accurate quantification unlike autoradiography and MSI. The methamphetamine concentrations were different between parts in an organ, particularly in the kidney. This method could be applicable to the measurement of the distribution of compounds in various solid samples and could be used as a complementary method for the measurement of the distribution of compounds by MSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan.
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Hadlock GC, Webb KM, McFadden LM, Chu PW, Ellis JD, Allen SC, Andrenyak DM, Vieira-Brock PL, German CL, Conrad KM, Hoonakker AJ, Gibb JW, Wilkins DG, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE. 4-Methylmethcathinone (mephedrone): neuropharmacological effects of a designer stimulant of abuse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 339:530-6. [PMID: 21810934 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.184119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The designer stimulant 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone) is among the most popular of the derivatives of the naturally occurring psychostimulant cathinone. Mephedrone has been readily available for legal purchase both online and in some stores and has been promoted by aggressive Web-based marketing. Its abuse in many countries, including the United States, is a serious public health concern. Owing largely to its recent emergence, there are no formal pharmacodynamic or pharmacokinetic studies of mephedrone. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to evaluate effects of this agent in a rat model. Results revealed that, similar to methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methamphetamine, and methcathinone, repeated mephedrone injections (4× 10 or 25 mg/kg s.c. per injection, 2-h intervals, administered in a pattern used frequently to mimic psychostimulant "binge" treatment) cause a rapid decrease in striatal dopamine (DA) and hippocampal serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5HT) transporter function. Mephedrone also inhibited both synaptosomal DA and 5HT uptake. Like methylenedioxymethamphetamine, but unlike methamphetamine or methcathinone, repeated mephedrone administrations also caused persistent serotonergic, but not dopaminergic, deficits. However, mephedrone caused DA release from a striatal suspension approaching that of methamphetamine and was self-administered by rodents. A method was developed to assess mephedrone concentrations in rat brain and plasma, and mephedrone levels were determined 1 h after a binge treatment. These data demonstrate that mephedrone has a unique pharmacological profile with both abuse liability and neurotoxic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory C Hadlock
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, 30 South 2000 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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18
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Lee KW, Kim HC, Lee SY, Jang CG. Methamphetamine-sensitized mice are accompanied by memory impairment and reduction of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor ligand binding in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Neuroscience 2011; 178:101-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 01/08/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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19
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Maher L, Phlong P, Mooney-Somers J, Keo S, Stein E, Couture MC, Page K. Amphetamine-type stimulant use and HIV/STI risk behaviour among young female sex workers in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2011; 22:203-9. [PMID: 21316935 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Use of amphetamine-type substances (ATS) has been linked to increased risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STI) worldwide. In Cambodia, recent ATS use is independently associated with incident STI infection among young female sex workers (FSWs). METHODS We conducted 33 in-depth interviews with women (15-29 years old) engaged in sex work to explore ATS use and vulnerability to HIV/STI. RESULTS Participants reported that ATS, primarily methamphetamine in pill and crystalline forms (yama), were cheap, widely available and commonly used. Yama was described as a "power drug" (thnam kamlang) which enabled women to work long hours and serve more customers. Use of ATS by clients was also common, with some providing drugs for women and/or encouraging their use, often resulting in prolonged sexual activity. Requests for unprotected sex were also more common among alternatives intoxicated clients and strategies typically employed to negotiate condom use were less effective. CONCLUSION ATS use was highly functional for young women engaged in sex work, facilitating a sense of power and agency and highlighting the occupational significance and normalization of ATS in this setting. This highly gendered dynamic supports the limited but emerging literature on women's use of ATS, which to date has been heavily focused on men. Results indicate an urgent need to increase awareness of the risks associated with ATS use, to provide women with sustainable alternatives for income generation, to better regulate the conditions of sex work, and to work with FSWs and their clients to develop and promote culturally appropriate harm reduction interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Maher
- National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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20
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Melatonin attenuates the amphetamine-induced decrease in vesicular monoamine transporter-2 expression in postnatal rat striatum. Neurosci Lett 2011; 488:154-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Revised: 11/05/2010] [Accepted: 11/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Yamamoto BK, Moszczynska A, Gudelsky GA. Amphetamine toxicities: classical and emerging mechanisms. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1187:101-21. [PMID: 20201848 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05141.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The drugs of abuse, methamphetamine and MDMA, produce long-term decreases in markers of biogenic amine neurotransmission. These decreases have been traditionally linked to nerve terminals and are evident in a variety of species, including rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans. Recent studies indicate that the damage produced by these drugs may be more widespread than originally believed. Changes indicative of damage to cell bodies of biogenic and nonbiogenic amine-containing neurons in several brain areas and endothelial cells that make up the blood-brain barrier have been reported. The processes that mediate this damage involve not only oxidative stress but also include excitotoxic mechanisms, neuroinflammation, the ubiquitin proteasome system, as well as mitochondrial and neurotrophic factor dysfunction. These mechanisms also underlie the toxicity associated with chronic stress and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, both of which have been shown to augment the toxicity to methamphetamine. Overall, multiple mechanisms are involved and interact to promote neurotoxicity to methamphetamine and MDMA. Moreover, the high coincidence of substituted amphetamine abuse by humans with HIV and/or chronic stress exposure suggests a potential enhanced vulnerability of these individuals to the neurotoxic actions of the amphetamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan K Yamamoto
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Toledo College of Medicine, Toledo, Ohio 43614, USA.
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22
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Melo P, Zanon-Moreno V, Alves CJ, Magalhães A, Tavares MA, Pinazo-Duran MD, Moradas-Ferreira P. Oxidative stress response in the adult rat retina and plasma after repeated administration of methamphetamine. Neurochem Int 2009; 56:431-6. [PMID: 19948197 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2009.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2009] [Revised: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA) is a psychostimulant that target the sensory systems, with the neurosensory retina having been shown to be affected. In the brain, MA-related toxicity can be linked to oxidative stress; the same relationship has yet to be established for the retina. The aim of this study, therefore, was to evaluate the effects of repeated exposure to MA on oxidative stress parameters in the rat retina. Oxidative stress parameters in the blood plasma were also assessed. Male Wistar rats were given 5mg/kg MA every 2h for a period of 6h (i.e., 4 injections) daily between postnatal day (PND) 91 and 100. Evolution of body weight was registered. Rats were sacrificed at PND 110. Blood plasma was collected and immediately frozen for storage at -70 degrees C. The eyes were enucleated, and the retina and choroids rapidly dissected on ice under dim light also to be stored at -70 degrees C. Lipid peroxidation activity was measured by the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test. Total antioxidant status, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, catalase (Cat) activity, and nitrogen oxides contents were also determined. Lipid peroxidation was significantly higher in the retina and blood plasma of the MA-treated rats. Total antioxidant levels were significantly lower in both retina and blood plasma of the MA-treated rats. The activity of SOD was significantly increased in the retina and blood plasma of MA-treated rats. Catalase activity did not differ between groups in either the retina or the blood plasma. Nitric oxide production was significantly higher in both the retina and blood plasma in the MA-treated animals. The overall findings show that the oxidative stress defence mechanisms in the retina are compromised by MA toxicity. The results are similar to those found in the brain, and, moreover, showed some correlation with the blood plasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Melo
- Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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23
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Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse--the case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines. DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE 2009. [PMID: 19877498 PMCID: PMC3181923 DOI: 10.31887/dcns.2009.11.3/egmayfrank] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ecstasy (MDMA, 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine) and the stimulants methamphetamine (METH, speed) and amphetamine are popular drugs among young people, particularly in the dance scene. When given in high doses both MDMA and the stimulant amphetamines are clearly neurotoxic in laboratory animals. MDMA causes selective and persistent lesions of central serotonergic nerve terminals, whereas amphetamines damage both the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems. In recent years, the question of ecstasy-induced neurotoxicity and possible functional sequelae has been addressed in several studies in drug users. Despite large methodological problems, the bulk of evidence suggests residual alterations of serotonergic transmission in MDMA users, although at least partial recovery may occur after long-term abstinence. However, functional sequelae may persist even after longer periods of abstinence. To date, the most consistent findings associate subtle cognitive impairments with ecstasy use, particularly with memory. In contrast, studies on possible long-term neurotoxic effects of stimulant use have been relatively scarce. Preliminary evidence suggests that alterations of the dopaminergic system may persist even after years of abstinence from METH, and may be associated with deficits in motor and cognitive performance. In this paper, we will review the literature focusing on human studies.
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Kimmel HL, Manvich DF, Blough BE, Negus SS, Howell LL. Behavioral and neurochemical effects of amphetamine analogs that release monoamines in the squirrel monkey. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 94:278-84. [PMID: 19766133 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2009] [Revised: 08/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
To date, there are no effective pharmacotherapies for treating psychostimulant abuse. Previous preclinical and clinical studies have shown that continuous treatment with the monoamine releaser amphetamine reduces cocaine self-administration, but amphetamine selectively targets the dopamine system and is reinforcing. In the present study, we examined the consequences of administration of amphetamine and three structurally related analogs that vary in their potencies for releasing dopamine and serotonin on behavioral-stimulant effects and nucleus accumbens dopamine levels in squirrel monkeys. Amphetamine and PAL-353, which have relatively high selectivity for releasing dopamine vs. serotonin, increased accumbens dopamine levels and induced stimulant effects on behavior maintained by a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement. PAL-313, which has a relatively low selectivity for releasing dopamine vs. serotonin, increased dopamine levels, but did not induce behavioral-stimulant effects. PAL-287, which is relatively nonselective in releasing dopamine and serotonin, did not increase dopamine levels or induce behavioral-stimulant effects. These results demonstrate that increasing serotonergic activity attenuates dopamine release and dopamine-mediated behavioral effects of monoamine releasers. In addition, these results support further investigation of PAL-313 and similar compounds as a potential medication for treating psychostimulant abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L Kimmel
- Division of Neuroscience, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Road, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, United States.
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Clemens KJ, McGregor IS, Hunt GE, Cornish JL. MDMA, methamphetamine and their combination: possible lessons for party drug users from recent preclinical research. Drug Alcohol Rev 2009; 26:9-15. [PMID: 17364831 DOI: 10.1080/09595230601036945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The substituted amphetamines 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy') and methamphetamine (METH, 'ice', 'speed') are increasingly popular drugs amongst party-drug users. Studies with humans have investigated the acute and possible long-term adverse effects of these drugs, yet outcomes of such studies are often ambiguous due to a variety of confounding factors. Studies employing animal models have value in determining the acute and long-term effects of MDMA and METH on brain and behaviour. Self-administration studies show that intravenous METH is a particularly potent reinforcer in rats and other species. In contrast, MDMA appears to have powerful effects in enhancing social behaviour in laboratory animals. Brief exposure to MDMA or METH may produce long-term reductions in dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain and alterations in the density of various receptor and transporter proteins. However it is still unclear, particularly in the case of MDMA, whether this reflects a 'neurotoxic' effect of the drug. Lasting alterations in social behaviour, anxiety, depressive symptoms and memory have been demonstrated in laboratory rats given MDMA or METH and this matches long-term changes reported in some human studies. Recent laboratory studies suggest that MDMA/METH combinations may produce greater adverse neurochemical and behavioural effects than either drug alone. This is of some concern given recent evidence that party drug users may be frequently exposed to this combination of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Clemens
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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Mitochondrial fragmentation is involved in methamphetamine-induced cell death in rat hippocampal neural progenitor cells. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5546. [PMID: 19436752 PMCID: PMC2677674 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 04/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) induces neurodegeneration through damage and apoptosis of dopaminergic nerve terminals and striatal cells, presumably via cross-talk between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria-dependent death cascades. However, the effects of METH on neural progenitor cells (NPC), an important reservoir for replacing neurons and glia during development and injury, remain elusive. Using a rat hippocampal NPC (rhNPC) culture, we characterized the METH-induced mitochondrial fragmentation, apoptosis, and its related signaling mechanism through immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, and Western blotting. We observed that METH induced rhNPC mitochondrial fragmentation, apoptosis, and inhibited cell proliferation. The mitochondrial fission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), but not calcium (Ca2+) influx, were involved in the regulation of METH-induced mitochondrial fragmentation. Furthermore, our results indicated that dysregulation of ROS contributed to the oligomerization and translocation of Drp1, resulting in mitochondrial fragmentation in rhNPC. Taken together, our data demonstrate that METH-mediated ROS generation results in the dysregulation of Drp1, which leads to mitochondrial fragmentation and subsequent apoptosis in rhNPC. This provides a potential mechanism for METH-related neurodegenerative disorders, and also provides insight into therapeutic strategies for the neurodegenerative effects of METH.
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Wisessmith W, Phansuwan-Pujito P, Govitrapong P, Chetsawang B. Melatonin reduces induction of Bax, caspase and cell death in methamphetamine-treated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cultured cells. J Pineal Res 2009; 46:433-40. [PMID: 19386024 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.2009.00680.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Several studies demonstrated that methamphetamine (MA)-treated human neuroblastoma cells exhibit increased oxidative stress, which regulates intracellular signaling cascades leading to cell death. Melatonin has a potential as a direct free radical scavenger and protects against cell death caused by MA. The objective of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective properties of melatonin on MA-induced induction of death signaling cascade and neuronal cell degeneration in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cultured cells. The results of the present study demonstrate that MA significantly reduced cell viability in SH-SY5Y cultured cells. Desipramine, a monoamine uptake blocker, and melatonin reversed the toxic effect of MA in reducing cell viability. Induction of Bax, Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase-3 protein levels were observed in SH-SY5Y cultured cells treated with MA, whereas the induction of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 was diminished by melatonin. Visualization of the induction of Bax using immunofluorescence but a reduction in mitochondrial sites using red-fluorescent mitochondria-staining dye was more obviously apparent in MA-treated cells than in untreated control cells and, again, this effect was abolished by melatonin. These findings demonstrate important roles of Bax and caspase in death signaling cascade, and the protective effects of melatonin in MA-treated SH-SY5Y cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilaiwan Wisessmith
- Neuro-Behavioural Biology Center, Institute of Science and Technology for Research and Development, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakornpathom, Thailand
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To review current evidence linking amphetamine use with aggression and to consider possible factors that might underlie this association. RECENT FINDINGS Although evidence that amphetamine use is related to increased levels of aggression continues to grow, the underlying processes or mechanisms remain somewhat elusive. In this review, three possible underlying factors are considered. Neurotoxic, pharmacological effects of amphetamine on the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems are related to aggressive, hostile behavior in both animal and human studies. Of particular interest is the converging evidence that amphetamine use is related to impairment in executive functions (including self-control) that are regulated by the prefrontal cortex. Taken together, these findings suggest that amphetamine users may have an impaired capacity to control or inhibit aggressive impulses. Furthermore, high levels of impulsivity related to amphetamine use may also play a role. Finally, amphetamine use is associated with increased positive symptoms of psychosis, particularly paranoia, that contribute to a perception of the environment as a hostile, threatening place. SUMMARY Taken separately, each of these factors may lead to an increase in aggression with increased use of amphetamine, but their interactive or synergistic effects may be particularly problematic.
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Zhu J, Reith MEA. Role of the dopamine transporter in the action of psychostimulants, nicotine, and other drugs of abuse. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2009; 7:393-409. [PMID: 19128199 DOI: 10.2174/187152708786927877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A number of studies over the last two decades have demonstrated the critical importance of dopamine (DA) in the behavioral pharmacology and addictive properties of abused drugs. The DA transporter (DAT) is a major target for drugs of abuse in the category of psychostimulants, and for methylphenidate (MPH), a drug used for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which can also be a psychostimulant drug of abuse. Other drugs of abuse such as nicotine, ethanol, heroin and morphine interact with the DAT in more indirect ways. Despite the different ways in which drugs of abuse can affect DAT function, one evolving theme in all cases is regulation of the DAT at the level of surface expression. DAT function is dynamically regulated by multiple intracellular and extracellular signaling pathways and several protein-protein interactions. In addition, DAT expression is regulated through the removal (internalization) and recycling of the protein from the cell surface. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated that individual differences in response to novel environments and psychostimulants can be predicted based on individual basal functional DAT expression. Although current knowledge of multiple factors regulating DAT activity has greatly expanded, many aspects of this regulation remain to be elucidated; these data will enable efforts to identify drugs that might be used therapeutically for drug dependence therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Zhu
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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Volz TJ, Farnsworth SJ, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE. Methylphenidate-induced alterations in synaptic vesicle trafficking and activity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1139:285-90. [PMID: 18991873 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1432.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The psychostimulant, methylphenidate (MPD), is commonly prescribed to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. MPD binds to the neuronal dopamine (DA) transporter, where it blocks the inward transport of DA. The present study expands upon these findings by examining the effects of in vivo MPD administration on the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT-2) in membrane-associated vesicle and cytoplasmic vesicle subcellular fractions (i.e., those vesicles that do and do not co-fractionate with synaptosomal membranes after osmotic lysis, respectively) isolated from lysates of rat striatal synaptosomes. The results indicate that a single MPD administration redistributes VMAT-2 and associated vesicles within nerve terminals away from the synaptosomal membranes and into the cytoplasm, as assessed 1 hour after treatment. DA transport is also increased by MPD in both vesicle fractions (on account of vesicle trafficking in the cytoplasmic vesicles and to kinetic upregulation of the VMAT-2 in the membrane-associated vesicles). This, in turn, leads to an increase in the DA content of both vesicle fractions as well as an increase in the velocity and magnitude of K(+)-stimulated DA release from striatal suspensions. Taken together, these data show that the trafficking, DA sequestration function, DA content, and exocytotic DA release function of synaptic vesicles can all be pharmacologically manipulated by in vivo MPD treatment. These findings may provide important insights useful for understanding and treating disorders involving abnormal DA transmission including drug abuse, Parkinson's disease, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trent J Volz
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
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Goodwin JS, Larson GA, Swant J, Sen N, Javitch JA, Zahniser NR, De Felice LJ, Khoshbouei H. Amphetamine and methamphetamine differentially affect dopamine transporters in vitro and in vivo. J Biol Chem 2008; 284:2978-2989. [PMID: 19047053 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m805298200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The psychostimulants d-amphetamine (AMPH) and methamphetamine (METH) release excess dopamine (DA) into the synaptic clefts of dopaminergic neurons. Abnormal DA release is thought to occur by reverse transport through the DA transporter (DAT), and it is believed to underlie the severe behavioral effects of these drugs. Here we compare structurally similar AMPH and METH on DAT function in a heterologous expression system and in an animal model. In the in vitro expression system, DAT-mediated whole-cell currents were greater for METH stimulation than for AMPH. At the same voltage and concentration, METH released five times more DA than AMPH and did so at physiological membrane potentials. At maximally effective concentrations, METH released twice as much [Ca(2+)](i) from internal stores compared with AMPH. [Ca(2+)](i) responses to both drugs were independent of membrane voltage but inhibited by DAT antagonists. Intact phosphorylation sites in the N-terminal domain of DAT were required for the AMPH- and METH-induced increase in [Ca(2+)](i) and for the enhanced effects of METH on [Ca(2+)](i) elevation. Calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and protein kinase C inhibitors alone or in combination also blocked AMPH- or METH-induced Ca(2+) responses. Finally, in the rat nucleus accumbens, in vivo voltammetry showed that systemic application of METH inhibited DAT-mediated DA clearance more efficiently than AMPH, resulting in excess external DA. Together these data demonstrate that METH has a stronger effect on DAT-mediated cell physiology than AMPH, which may contribute to the euphoric and addictive properties of METH compared with AMPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Shawn Goodwin
- Department of Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee 37208
| | - Gaynor A Larson
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Jarod Swant
- Departments of Neurobiology and Neurotoxicology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee 37208
| | - Namita Sen
- Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Recognition, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027-6902
| | - Jonathan A Javitch
- Departments of Psychiatry and Pharmacology, Center for Molecular Recognition, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027-6902
| | - Nancy R Zahniser
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045
| | - Louis J De Felice
- Center for Molecular Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232
| | - Habibeh Khoshbouei
- Departments of Neurobiology and Neurotoxicology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee 37208
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Ferris MJ, Mactutus CF, Booze RM. Neurotoxic profiles of HIV, psychostimulant drugs of abuse, and their concerted effect on the brain: current status of dopamine system vulnerability in NeuroAIDS. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 32:883-909. [PMID: 18430470 PMCID: PMC2527205 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2007] [Revised: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There are roughly 30-40 million HIV-infected individuals in the world as of December 2007, and drug abuse directly contributes to one-third of all HIV infections in the United States. Antiretroviral therapy has increased the lifespan of HIV-seropositives, but CNS function often remains diminished, effectively decreasing quality of life. A modest proportion may develop HIV-associated dementia, the severity and progression of which is increased with drug abuse. HIV and drugs of abuse in the CNS target subcortical brain structures and DA systems in particular. This toxicity is mediated by a number of neurotoxic mechanisms, including but not limited to, aberrant immune response and oxidative stress. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies must be developed that can address a wide variety of disparate neurotoxic mechanisms and apoptotic cascades. This paper reviews the research pertaining to the where, what, and how of HIV and cocaine/methamphetamine toxicity in the CNS. Specifically, where these toxins most affect the brain, what aspects of the virus are neurotoxic, and how these toxins mediate neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Ferris
- University of South Carolina, Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Columbia, SC 29208, United States.
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Chu PW, Seferian KS, Birdsall E, Truong JG, Riordan JA, Metcalf CS, Hanson GR, Fleckenstein AE. Differential regional effects of methamphetamine on dopamine transport. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 590:105-10. [PMID: 18599036 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2006] [Revised: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 05/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Multiple high-dose methamphetamine administrations cause long-lasting (>1 week) deficits in striatal dopaminergic neuronal function. This stimulant likewise causes rapid (within 1 h) and persistent (at least 48 h) decreases in activities of striatal: 1) dopamine transporters, as assessed in synaptosomes; and 2) vesicular monoamine transporter -2 (VMAT-2), as assessed in a non-membrane-associated (referred to herein as cytoplasmic) vesicular subcellular fraction. Importantly, not all brain areas are vulnerable to methamphetamine-induced long-lasting deficits. Similarly, the present study indicates that methamphetamine exerts differential acute effects on monoaminergic transporters according to brain region. In particular, results revealed that in the nucleus accumbens, methamphetamine rapidly, but reversibly (within 24 h), decreased plasmalemmal dopamine transporter function, without effect on plasmalemmal dopamine transporter immunoreactivity. Methamphetamine also rapidly and reversibly (within 48 h) decreased cytoplasmic VMAT-2 function in this region, with relatively little effect on cytoplasmic VMAT-2 immunoreactivity. In contrast, methamphetamine did not alter either dopamine transporter or VMAT-2 activity in the hypothalamus. Noteworthy, the nucleus accumbens and hypothalamus did not display the persistent long-lasting striatal dopamine depletions caused by the stimulant. Taken together, these data suggest that deficits in plasmalemmal and vesicular monoamine transporter activity lasting greater than 24-48 h may be linked to the long-lasting dopaminergic deficits caused by methamphetamine and appear to be region specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Wen Chu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Hsu YH, Chen CCV, Zechariah A, Yen CC, Yang LC, Chang C. Neuronal dysfunction of a long projecting multisynaptic pathway in response to methamphetamine using manganese-enhanced MRI. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 196:543-53. [PMID: 18000655 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0990-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2007] [Accepted: 10/15/2007] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Manganese (Mn2+)-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) is an emerging in vivo MR approach for pharmacological research. One new application of MEMRI in this area is to characterize functional changes of a specific neural circuit that is essential to the central effects of a drug challenge. OBJECTIVES To develop and validate such use of MEMRI in neuropharmacology, the current study applied MEMRI to visualize functional changes within a multisynaptic pathway originating from fasciculus retroflexus (FR) that is central to a commonly abused psychostimulant, methamphetamine (MA). METHODS Twelve rats were injected intraperitoneally with MA (10 mg/kg) or saline every 2 h for a total of four injections. After 6 days, Mn2+ was injected into the habenular nucleus (FR origin) of all animals, and MEMRI was repeatedly performed at certain points in time over 48 h. The evolution of Mn2+-induced signal enhancement was assessed across the FR tract, the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the striatum, the nucleus accumbens, and the prefrontal cortex (PFC), in both MA-injected animals and controls. RESULTS MA treatment was found to affect the complexity and efficiency of Mn2+ uptake in the VTA, via the FR tract, with significantly increased Mn2+ accumulation in the VTA, the dorsomedial part of the striatum, and the PFC. CONCLUSIONS MEMRI successfully visualizes disruptions in the multisynaptic pathway as the consequences of repeated MA exposure. MEMRI is potentially an important method in the future to investigate functional changes within a specific pathway under the influences of pharmacological agents, given its excellent functional, in vivo, spatial, and temporal properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hua Hsu
- Functional and Micro-Magnetic Resonance Imaging Center, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Simões P, Silva A, Pereira F, Marques E, Grade S, Milhazes N, Borges F, Ribeiro C, Macedo T. Methamphetamine induces alterations on hippocampal NMDA and AMPA receptor subunit levels and impairs spatial working memory. Neuroscience 2007; 150:433-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2007] [Revised: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 09/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Bourque M, Liu B, Dluzen DE, Di Paolo T. Tamoxifen protects male mice nigrostriatal dopamine against methamphetamine-induced toxicity. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 74:1413-23. [PMID: 17825264 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2007] [Revised: 07/06/2007] [Accepted: 07/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The selective estrogen receptor modulator tamoxifen and estradiol were shown to protect nigrostriatal dopamine concentration loss by methamphetamine in female mice whereas male mice were protected only by tamoxifen. The present study examined the protective properties of tamoxifen in male mice on several nigrostriatal dopaminergic markers and body temperature. Intact male mice were administered 12.5 or 50 microg tamoxifen 24 h before methamphetamine treatment. Basal body temperatures of male mice remained unchanged by the tamoxifen treatment. Methamphetamine reduced striatal dopamine and its metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and homovanillic acid concentrations, striatal and substantia nigra dopamine and vesicular monoamine transporter specific binding as well substantia nigra dopamine and vesicular monoamine transporter mRNA levels and increased striatal preproenkephalin mRNA levels. These methamphetamine effects were not altered by 12.5 microg tamoxifen except for increased striatal dopamine metabolites and turnover. Tamoxifen at 50 microg reduced the methamphetamine effect on striatal dopamine concentration, dopamine transporter specific binding and prevented the increase in preproenkephalin mRNA levels; in the substantia nigra tamoxifen prevented the decrease of dopamine transporter mRNA levels. The present results show a tamoxifen dose-dependent prevention of loss of various dopaminergic markers against methamphetamine-induced toxicity in male mice. Since this is the only known hormonal protection of male mice against methamphetamine toxicity, these findings provide important new information on specific parameters of nigrostriatal dopaminergic function preserved by tamoxifen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Bourque
- Molecular Endocrinology and Oncology Research Center, Laval University Medical Center, CHUL, Quebec City, Quebec G1V 4G2, Canada
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Abstract
Drug abuse has a long, but also different history in Germany and China. The Opium War largely influenced the history of China in 19th century; however, China was once recognized as a drug-free nation for 3 decades from the 1950s to the 1980s. Drug abuse has spread quickly since re-emerging as a national problem in China in the late 1980s. The number of registered drug abusers increased from 70 000 in 1990 to more than 1 million by the end of 2005. In past decades, illicit drug trafficking and production have swept most provinces in China, and drug abuse has caused many problems for both abusers and the community. One major drug-related problem is the spread of HIV, which has caused major social and economic damage in China. Germany, the largest developed European country, also faces the drug and addiction problem. Germany has about 150 000 heroin addicts, for whom HIV/AIDS has become a serious threat since the mid 1980s. To control the drug problem, the German Government adopted the “Action Plan on Drugs and Addiction” in 2003; the China Central Government approved a similar regulation in the antidrug campaign in 2005. Germany has experience in reducing drug-related harm. The methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) program has run for more than 20 years and the public has become more tolerant of addicts. In 2003, China began the MMT program for controlling the spread of HIV/AIDS. It is necessary for China to learn from developed countries to acquire success in its antidrug campaign. In this review, we will go over the differences and similarities in drug abuse between Germany and China. The differences are related to history, population and economics, drug policy context, drug laws, HIV/hepatitis C virus infection, the MMT program and so on. These 2 nations have drug abuse problems with different histories and currently use different approaches to handle illicit drug marketing and use. The legal penalties for illicit drug offences reflect the social differences of these 2 nations with respect to the seriousness of particular types of crimes. The characteristics of the MMT program may also influence patterns of drug abuse in these 2 nations and China should improve the MMT program based on the successful model in Europe, the USA, and Australia. We recommend more dialogue and collaboration between Germany and China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingo Ilja Michels
- Office of the Federal Drug Commissioner, Federal Ministry of Health, Berlin, 10117 Germany
| | - Yu-xia Fang
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, 21224 Maryland USA
| | - Dong Zhao
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Li-yan Zhao
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Lin Lu
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100083 China
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Numachi Y, Ohara A, Yamashita M, Fukushima S, Kobayashi H, Hata H, Watanabe H, Hall FS, Lesch KP, Murphy DL, Uhl GR, Sora I. Methamphetamine-induced hyperthermia and lethal toxicity: role of the dopamine and serotonin transporters. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 572:120-8. [PMID: 17673199 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2007] [Revised: 06/04/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We examined the hyperthermic and lethal toxic effects of methamphetamine in dopamine transporter (DAT) and/or serotonin transporter (SERT) knockout (KO) mice. Methamphetamine (45 mg/kg) caused significant hyperthermia even in the mice with a single DAT gene copy and no SERT copies (DAT+/- SERT-/- mice). Mice with no DAT copies and a single SERT gene copy (DAT-/- SERT+/- mice) showed significant but reduced hyperthermia when compared to wild-type mice after methamphetamine. Surprisingly, DAT/SERT double KO mice exhibited a paradoxical hypothermia after methamphetamine. These results demonstrate that methamphetamine exerts a hyperthermic effect via DAT, or via SERT, in the absence of DAT. The selective norepinephrine transporter blocker (20 mg/kg nisoxetine) caused hyperthermia in DAT/SERT double KO mice, suggesting that the norepinephrine system is not responsible for methamphetamine-induced paradoxical hypothermia in the double KO mice. DAT gene deletion in mice strikingly increased LD50 of methamphetamine by 1.7-1.8 times that of wild-type mice, suggesting that the lethal toxic effect of methamphetamine is mainly dependent on DAT. Moreover, dissociation between hyperthermic and lethal toxic effects of methamphetamine in DAT single KO mice and DAT/SERT double KO mice suggest that hyperthermia is not a prerequisite for methamphetamine-induced lethality. Methamphetamine (45 mg/kg) significantly increased mRNA of interleukin-1beta, which is the major endogenous pyrogen, in the hypothalamus of wild-type mice but not in DAT/SERT double KO mice, which provides a partial mechanism of methamphetamine-induced paradoxical hypothermia. These results suggest that DAT and SERT are key molecules for hyperthermic and lethal toxic effects of methamphetamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohtaro Numachi
- Department of Biological Psychiatry, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
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Williams MT, Herring NR, Schaefer TL, Skelton MR, Campbell NG, Lipton JW, McCrea AE, Vorhees CV. Alterations in body temperature, corticosterone, and behavior following the administration of 5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine ('foxy') to adult rats: a new drug of abuse. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:1404-20. [PMID: 17047665 PMCID: PMC2892181 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Many drugs are used or abused in social contexts without understanding the ramifications of their use. In this study, we examined the effects of a newly popular drug, 5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MEO-DIPT; 'foxy' or 'foxy-methoxy'). Two experiments were performed. In the first, 5-MEO-DIPT (0, 10, or 20 mg/kg) was administered to rats four times on a single day and animals were examined 3 days later. The animals that received 5-MEO-DIPT demonstrated hypothermia during the period of drug administration and delayed mild hyperthermic rebound for at least 48 h. Corticosterone levels in plasma were elevated in a dose-dependent manner compared to saline-treated animals with minor changes in 5-HT turnover and no changes in monoamine levels. In experiment 2, rats were examined in behavioral tasks following either 0 or 20 mg/kg of 5-MEO-DIPT. The animals treated with 5-MEO-DIPT showed hypoactivity and an attenuated response to (+)-methamphetamine-induced stimulation (1 mg/kg). In a test of path integration (Cincinnati water maze), 5-MEO-DIPT-treated animals displayed deficits in performance compared to the saline-treated animals. No differences were noted in the ability of the animals to perform in the Morris water maze or on tests of novel object or place recognition. The data demonstrate that 5-MEO-DIPT alters the ability of an animal to perform certain cognitive tasks, while leaving others intact and disrupts the endocrine system. 5-MEO-DIPT may have the potential to induce untoward effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T Williams
- Division of Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH 45229-3039, USA.
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Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, Gibb JW, Hanson GR. New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2007; 47:681-98. [PMID: 17209801 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 482] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Amphetamine is a psychostimulant commonly used to treat several disorders, including attention deficit, narcolepsy, and obesity. Plasmalemmal and vesicular monoamine transporters, such as the neuronal dopamine transporter and the vesicular monoamine transporter-2, are two of its principal targets. This review focuses on new insights, obtained from both in vivo and in vitro studies, into the molecular mechanisms whereby amphetamine, and the closely related compounds methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine, cause monoamine, and particularly dopamine, release. These mechanisms include amphetamine-induced exchange diffusion, reverse transport, and channel-like transport phenomena as well as the weak base properties of amphetamine. Additionally, amphetamine analogs may affect monoamine transporters through phosphorylation, transporter trafficking, and the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. All of these mechanisms have potential implications for both amphetamine- and methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity, as well as dopaminergic neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette E Fleckenstein
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA.
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Volz TJ, Fleckenstein AE, Hanson GR. Methamphetamine-induced alterations in monoamine transport: implications for neurotoxicity, neuroprotection and treatment. Addiction 2007; 102 Suppl 1:44-8. [PMID: 17493052 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01771.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM To review studies delineating the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine on monoamine transport in dopaminergic neurons of the striatum and nucleus accumbens. METHOD The scope of this review includes the English language dopamine transporter and vesicular monoamine transporter-2 primary literature to April 2006 identified by Pubmed, Science Citation Index and SciFinder Scholar literature searches. RESULTS Changes in the function of the plasmalemmal dopamine transporter and the vesicular monoamine transporter-2 are key components of methamphetamine-induced persistent dopaminergic deficits. These deficits include persistent reductions in dopamine content, dopamine transporter density and tyrosine hydroxylase activity. The striatum is susceptible to these effects of methamphetamine while the nucleus accumbens is resistant. Differences in dopamine transporter density and activity, extracellular dopamine levels and antioxidant levels in these two brain regions may, in part, account for the resistance of the nucleus accumbens. CONCLUSION These findings concerning the nature of methamphetamine-induced changes in plasmalemmal and vesicular dopamine transport have very important implications for drug targets and for understanding the etiology of dopaminergic neurodegenerative processes, such as those associated with methamphetamine addiction and Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trent J Volz
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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Hashimoto K, Tsukada H, Nishiyama S, Fukumoto D, Kakiuchi T, Iyo M. Protective effects of minocycline on the reduction of dopamine transporters in the striatum after administration of methamphetamine: a positron emission tomography study in conscious monkeys. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:577-81. [PMID: 16712806 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2005] [Revised: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 03/08/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Positron emission tomography (PET) studies of methamphetamine (METH) abusers suggest that psychotic symptoms of METH abusers may be attributable to the reduction of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the human brain. However, there are currently no particular pharmacological treatments for the wide range of symptoms associated with METH abuse. METHODS Using a PET study in conscious monkeys, we investigated whether the second generation antibiotic minocycline could protect against the reduction of DAT in monkeys treated with METH (2 mg/kg x 3, 3-hour intervals). RESULTS Pretreatment and subsequent administration of minocycline significantly attenuated the reduction of DAT in the striatum of monkeys treated with METH. Furthermore, posttreatment and subsequent administration of minocycline also significantly attenuated the reduction of DAT. In contrast, repeated administration of minocycline alone did not alter the density of DAT in the striatum of monkeys treated with METH. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that minocycline protects against METH-induced neurotoxicity in the monkey brain. Therefore, minocycline is likely to be a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of several symptoms associated with METH use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba.
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Abstract
Methamphetamine is a highly potent and addictive drug that is abused in the United States and around the world. The drug is inexpensive and easily manufactured from simple chemicals such as pseudoephedrine. These features, coupled with its long half-life and highly addictive nature, contribute to the increasing problem of illicit methamphetamine use. Abuse of this agent has both acute and chronic serious health consequences. Policy makers and public health officials must continue to develop programs that educate the public and limit the abuse associated with methamphetamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Romanelli
- University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA.
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Hauser KF, El-Hage N, Stiene-Martin A, Maragos WF, Nath A, Persidsky Y, Volsky DJ, Knapp PE. HIV-1 neuropathogenesis: glial mechanisms revealed through substance abuse. J Neurochem 2006; 100:567-86. [PMID: 17173547 PMCID: PMC4305441 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04227.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal dysfunction and degeneration are ultimately responsible for the neurocognitive impairment and dementia manifest in neuroAIDS. Despite overt neuronal pathology, HIV-1 does not directly infect neurons; rather, neuronal dysfunction or death is largely an indirect consequence of disrupted glial function and the cellular and viral toxins released by infected glia. A role for glia in HIV-1 neuropathogenesis is revealed in experimental and clinical studies examining substance abuse-HIV-1 interactions. Current evidence suggests that glia are direct targets of substance abuse and that glia contribute markedly to the accelerated neurodegeneration seen with substance abuse in HIV-1 infected individuals. Moreover, maladaptive neuroplastic responses to chronic drug abuse might create a latent susceptibility to CNS disorders such as HIV-1. In this review, we consider astroglial and microglial interactions and dysfunction in the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection and examine how drug actions in glia contribute to neuroAIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt F. Hauser
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Nazira El-Hage
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Anne Stiene-Martin
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - William F. Maragos
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
- Department of Neurology, University of Kentucky College of, Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Avindra Nath
- Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins, University, Baltimore, MD, 21287
| | - Yuri Persidsky
- Department of Pathology, University of Nebraska, Omaha, NE, 68198
| | - David J. Volsky
- Molecular Virology Division, St Luke's–Roosevelt Hospital Center and Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10019
| | - Pamela E. Knapp
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
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45
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Berman JW, Carson MJ, Chang L, Cox BM, Fox HS, Gonzalez RG, Hanson GR, Hauser KF, Ho WZ, Hong JS, Major EO, Maragos WF, Masliah E, McArthur JC, Miller DB, Nath A, O’Callaghan JP, Persidsky Y, Power C, Rogers TJ, Royal W. NeuroAIDS, Drug Abuse, and Inflammation: Building Collaborative Research Activities. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006; 1:351-99. [DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9048-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2006] [Accepted: 09/18/2006] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Ferrucci M, Busceti CL, Falleni A, Giorgi FS, Ruggieri S, Fornai F. Effects of Methamphetamine on the Cerebellar Cortex: A Preliminary Study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1074:149-53. [PMID: 17105912 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1369.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) targets monoamine nerve terminals and produces motor effects, which are related to changes in catecholamine activity within the basal ganglia. Cerebellum plays an important role in motor control, nonetheless only a few studies investigated the effects of METH in this area. In this article, we report preliminary results on protein expression in the cerebellum following METH administration. In particular, we focused on the rate-limiting catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). By using immunoblotting, we found that METH administration produces a dose-dependent increase of TH within the cerebellar cortex of mice, which is opposite to the decrease of TH within the striatum. Further investigations are needed in order to determine the time course, the cerebellar regions, the cellular (and subcellular) compartments, and the functional role related to these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Ferrucci
- Department of Human Morphology and Applied Biology, University of Pisa, Via Roma, 55, I-56126 Pisa, Italy.
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ZHU JPQ, XU W, ANGULO JA. Methamphetamine-induced cell death: selective vulnerability in neuronal subpopulations of the striatum in mice. Neuroscience 2006; 140:607-22. [PMID: 16650608 PMCID: PMC2882192 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.02.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2005] [Revised: 02/02/2006] [Accepted: 02/08/2006] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is an illicit and potent psychostimulant, which acts as an indirect dopamine agonist. In the striatum, METH has been shown to cause long lasting neurotoxic damage to dopaminergic nerve terminals and recently, the degeneration and death of striatal cells. The present study was undertaken to identify the type of striatal neurons that undergo apoptosis after METH. Male mice received a single high dose of METH (30 mg/kg, i.p.) and were killed 24 h later. To demonstrate that METH induces apoptosis in neurons, we combined terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining with immunohistofluorescence for the neuronal marker neuron-specific nuclear protein (NeuN). Staining for TUNEL and NeuN was colocalized throughout the striatum. METH induces apoptosis in approximately 25% of striatal neurons. Cell counts of TUNEL-positive neurons in the dorsomedial, ventromedial, dorsolateral and ventrolateral quadrants of the striatum did not reveal anatomical preference. The type of striatal neuron undergoing cell death was determined by combining TUNEL with immunohistofluorescence for selective markers of striatal neurons: dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, of apparent Mr 32,000, parvalbumin, choline acetyltransferase and somatostatin (SST). METH induces apoptosis in approximately 21% of dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, of apparent Mr 32,000-positive neurons (projection neurons), 45% of GABA-parvalbumin-positive neurons in the dorsal striatum, and 29% of cholinergic neurons in the dorsal-medial striatum. In contrast, the SST-positive interneurons were refractory to METH-induced apoptosis. Finally, the amount of cell loss determined with Nissl staining correlated with the amount of TUNEL staining in the striatum of METH-treated animals. In conclusion, some of the striatal projection neurons and the GABA-parvalbumin and cholinergic interneurons were removed by apoptosis in the aftermath of METH. This imbalance in the populations of striatal neurons may lead to functional abnormalities in the output and processing of neural information in this part of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - J. A. ANGULO
- Corresponding author. Tel: +1-212-772-5232; fax: +1-212-772-5230. (J. A. Angulo)
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Shepard JD, Chuang DT, Shaham Y, Morales M. Effect of methamphetamine self-administration on tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter levels in mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways of the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 185:505-13. [PMID: 16555063 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-006-0316-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2005] [Accepted: 01/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Many studies have examined the effect of experimenter-delivered methamphetamine on the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways. In contrast, little is known about the effect of methamphetamine self-administration on these neuronal pathways. We studied the effect of methamphetamine self-administration on two key regulators of dopamine transmission, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and dopamine transporter (DAT), in components of the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine pathways. METHODS Rats self-administered methamphetamine (0.1 mg/kg per infusion, fixed-ratio-1 reinforcement schedule) or saline (control condition) for 9 h/day over 10 days. The brains of these rats were collected after 1 or 30 days of forced abstinence and the expression levels of TH and DAT were assayed by in situ, hybridization and western blot. RESULTS TH mRNA and protein levels were increased in the ventral tegmental area (VTA, the cell body region of the mesolimbic dopamine system) and the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC, the cell body region of the nigrostriatal dopamine system) after 1 day, but not 30 days, of forced abstinence from methamphetamine. In contrast, methamphetamine self-administration had no effect on TH protein levels in dopaminergic terminals located in the nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen. In addition, methamphetamine self-administration had no effect on DAT mRNA levels in the VTA. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that extended daily access to self-administered methamphetamine results in a transient, short-lasting effect on mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine neurons of the rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Shepard
- Cellular Neurobiology Research Branch, IRP/NIDA/NIH, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J. The confounding problem of polydrug use in recreational ecstasy/MDMA users: a brief overview. J Psychopharmacol 2006; 20:188-93. [PMID: 16510477 DOI: 10.1177/0269881106059939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The popular dance drug ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine -- MDMA) is neurotoxic upon central serotonergic neurons in laboratory animals and possibly also in humans. In recent years, several studies reported alterations of serotonergic transmission and neuropsychiatric abnormalities in ecstasy users which might be related to MDMA-induced neurotoxic brain damage. To date, the most consistent findings associate subtle cognitive, particularly memory, deficits with heavy ecstasy use. However, most studies have important inherent methodological problems. One of the most serious confounds is the widespread pattern of polydrug use which makes it dif.cult to relate the findings in user populations to one specific drug. The present paper represents a brief overview on this issue. The most commonly co-used substances are alcohol, cannabis and stimulants (amphetamines and cocaine). Stimulants are also neurotoxic upon both serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons. Hence, they may act synergistically with MDMA and enhance its long-term adverse effects. The interactions between MDMA and cannabis use may be more complex: cannabis use is a well-recognized risk factor for neuropsychiatric disorders and it was shown to contribute to psychological problems and cognitive failures in ecstasy users. However, at the cellular level, cannabinoids have neuroprotective actions and they were shown to (partially) block MDMA-induced neurotoxicity in laboratory animals. In future, longitudinal and prospective research designs should hopefully lead to a better understanding of the relation between drug use and subclinical psychological symptoms or neurocognitive failures and, also, of questions around interactions between the various substances of abuse.
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Abstract
Drug abuse has spread quickly since reemerging as a national problem in China in the late 1980s. The number of registered drug abusers increased from 70,000 in 1990 to more than one million by the end of 2004. In addition to opioids, abuse of 'new' types of drugs including 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and ketamine has spread since 1997. Illicit drug trafficking and production have swept most of southern China, and throughout the country drug abuse has caused many problems for both abusers and the community. One major drug-related problem is the spread of HIV, which has caused major social and economic damage in China. In response, the Chinese government has begun an anti-drug campaign, including legislative measures to control drug abuse. However, changing the public's attitudes toward drug abusers and breaking the link between drug use and HIV spread are equally important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-xia Fang
- Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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