A hydrophobic residue in position 15 of the rP2X3 receptor slows desensitization and reveals properties beneficial for pharmacological analysis and high-throughput screening

Ion permeation pathway within the internal pore of P2X receptor channels

P2X receptor channels are trimeric ATP-activated ion channels expressed in neuronal and non-neuronal cells that are attractive therapeutic targets for human disorders. Seven subtypes of P2X receptor channels have been identified in mammals that can form both homomeric and heteromeric channels. P2X1-4 and P2X7 receptor channels are cation-selective, whereas P2X5 has been reported to have both cation and anion permeability. P2X receptor channel structures reveal that each subunit is comprised of two transmembrane helices, with both N-and C-termini on the intracellular side of the membrane and a large extracellular domain that contains the ATP binding sites at subunit interfaces. Recent structures of ATP-bound P2X receptors with the activation gate open reveal the unanticipated presence of a cytoplasmic cap over the central ion permeation pathway, leaving lateral fenestrations that may be largely buried within the membrane as potential pathways for ions to permeate the intracellular end of the pore. In the present study, we identify a critical residue within the intracellular lateral fenestrations that is readily accessible to thiol-reactive compounds from both sides of the membrane and where substitutions influence the relative permeability of the channel to cations and anions. Taken together, our results demonstrate that ions can enter or exit the internal pore through lateral fenestrations that play a critical role in determining the ion selectivity of P2X receptor channels.

Diclofenac and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are competitive antagonists of the human P2X3 receptor

Introduction: The P2X3 receptor (P2X3R), an ATP-gated non-selective cation channel of the P2X receptor family, is expressed in sensory neurons and involved in nociception. P2X3R inhibition was shown to reduce chronic and neuropathic pain. In a previous screening of 2000 approved drugs, natural products, and bioactive substances, various non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were found to inhibit P2X3R-mediated currents.

Methods: To investigate whether the inhibition of P2X receptors contributes to the analgesic effect of NSAIDs, we characterized the potency and selectivity of various NSAIDs at P2X3R and other P2XR subtypes using two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology.

Results: We identified diclofenac as a hP2X3R and hP2X2/3R antagonist with micromolar potency (with IC50 values of 138.2 and 76.7 µM, respectively). A weaker inhibition of hP2X1R, hP2X4R, and hP2X7R by diclofenac was determined. Flufenamic acid (FFA) inhibited hP2X3R, rP2X3R, and hP2X7R (IC50 values of 221 µM, 264.1 µM, and ∼900 µM, respectively), calling into question its use as a non-selective ion channel blocker, when P2XR-mediated currents are under study. Inhibition of hP2X3R or hP2X2/3R by diclofenac could be overcome by prolonged ATP application or increasing concentrations of the agonist α,β-meATP, respectively, indicating competition of diclofenac and the agonists. Molecular dynamics simulation showed that diclofenac largely overlaps with ATP bound to the open state of the hP2X3R. Our results suggest a competitive antagonism through which diclofenac, by interacting with residues of the ATP-binding site, left flipper, and dorsal fin domains, inhibits the gating of P2X3R by conformational fixation of the left flipper and dorsal fin domains. In summary, we demonstrate the inhibition of the human P2X3 receptor by various NSAIDs. Diclofenac proved to be the most effective antagonist with a strong inhibition of hP2X3R and hP2X2/3R and a weaker inhibition of hP2X1R, hP2X4R, and hP2X7R.

Discussion: Considering their involvement in nociception, inhibition of hP2X3R and hP2X2/3R by micromolar concentrations of diclofenac, which are rarely reached in the therapeutic range, may play a minor role in analgesia compared to the high-potency cyclooxygenase inhibition but may explain the known side effect of taste disturbances caused by diclofenac.

Molecular Pharmacology of P2X Receptors: Exploring Druggable Domains Revealed by Structural Biology

Extracellular ATP is a critical signaling molecule that is found in a wide range of concentrations across cellular environments. The family of nonselective cation channels that sense extracellular ATP, termed P2X receptors (P2XRs), is composed of seven subtypes (P2X₁-P2X₇) that assemble as functional homotrimeric and heterotrimeric ion channels. Each P2XR is activated by a distinct concentration of extracellular ATP, spanning from high nanomolar to low millimolar. P2XRs are implicated in a variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes in the cardiovascular, immune, and central nervous systems, corresponding to the spatiotemporal expression, regulation, and activation of each subtype. The therapeutic potential of P2XRs is an emerging area of research in which structural biology has seemingly exceeded medicinal chemistry, as there are several published P2XR structures but currently no FDA-approved drugs targeting these ion channels. Cryogenic electron microscopy is ideally suited to facilitate structure-based drug design for P2XRs by revealing and characterizing novel ligand-binding sites. This review covers structural elements in P2XRs including the extracellular orthosteric ATP-binding site, extracellular allosteric modulator sites, channel pore, and cytoplasmic substructures, with an emphasis on potential therapeutic ligand development.

How Structural Biology Has Directly Impacted Our Understanding of P2X Receptor Function and Gating

P2X receptors are ATP-gated ion channels expressed in a wide variety of eukaryotic cells. They play key roles in diverse processes such as platelet activation, smooth muscle contraction, synaptic transmission, nociception, cell proliferation, and inflammation making this receptor family an important pharmacological target. Structures of P2X receptors solved by X-ray crystallography have been instrumental in helping to define mechanisms of molecular P2X receptor function. In 2009, the first X-ray structure of the P2X4 receptor subtype confirmed a trimeric stoichiometry and revealed the overall architecture of the functional ion channel. Subsequent X-ray structures have provided the molecular details to define the orthosteric ATP binding pocket, the orthosteric antagonist binding pocket, an allosteric antagonist binding pocket, and the pore architecture in each of the major conformational states of the receptor gating cycle. Moreover, the unique gating mechanism by which P2X receptor subtypes desensitize at differing rates, referred to as the helical recoil model of receptor desensitization, was discovered directly from X-ray structures of the P2X3 receptor. However, structures of P2X receptors solved by X-ray crystallography have only been able to provide limited information on the cytoplasmic domain of this receptor family, as this domain was always truncated to varying degrees in order to facilitate crystallization. Because the P2X7 receptor subtype has a significantly larger cytoplasmic domain that has been shown to be necessary for its ability to initiate apoptosis, an absence of structural information on the P2X7 receptor cytoplasmic domain has limited our understanding of its complex signaling pathways as well as its unusual ability to remain open without undergoing desensitization. This absence of cytoplasmic structural information for P2X7 receptors was recently overcome when the first full-length P2X7 receptor structures were solved by single-particle cryogenic electron microscopy. These structures finally provide insight into the large and unique P2X7 receptor cytoplasmic domain and revealed two novel structural elements and several surprising findings: first, a cytoplasmic structural element called the cytoplasmic ballast was identified that contains a dinuclear zinc ion complex and a high affinity guanosine nucleotide binding site and second, a palmitoylated membrane proximal structural element called the C-cys anchor was identified which prevents P2X7 receptor desensitization. This chapter will highlight the major structural and functional aspects of P2X receptors discovered through structural biology, with a key emphasis on the most recent cryogenic electron microscopy structures of the full-length, wild-type P2X7 receptor.

BAC transgenic mice to study the expression of P2X2 and P2Y1 receptors

Extracellular purines are important signaling molecules involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes via the activation of P2 receptors. Information about the spatial and temporal P2 receptor (P2R) expression and its regulation remains crucial for the understanding of the role of P2Rs in health and disease. To identify cells carrying P2X2Rs in situ, we have generated BAC transgenic mice that express the P2X2R subunits as fluorescent fusion protein (P2X2-TagRFP). In addition, we generated a BAC P2Y₁R TagRFP reporter mouse expressing a TagRFP reporter for the P2RY1 gene expression. We demonstrate expression of the P2X2R in a subset of DRG neurons, the brain stem, the hippocampus, as well as on Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum. However, the weak fluorescence intensity in our P2X2R-TagRFP mouse precluded tracking of living cells. Our P2Y₁R reporter mice confirmed the widespread expression of the P2RY1 gene in the CNS and indicate for the first time P2RY1 gene expression in mouse Purkinje cells, which so far has only been described in rats and humans. Our P2R transgenic models have advanced the understanding of purinergic transmission, but BAC transgenic models appeared not always to be straightforward and permanent reliable. We noticed a loss of fluorescence intensity, which depended on the number of progeny generations. These problems are discussed and may help to provide more successful animal models, even if in future more versatile and adaptable nuclease-mediated genome-editing techniques will be the methods of choice.

Uncoupling sodium channel dimers restores the phenotype of a pain-linked Nav 1.7 channel mutation

Background and Purpose

The voltage‐gated sodium channel Na_v1.7 is essential for adequate perception of painful stimuli. Mutations in the encoding gene, SCN9A, cause various pain syndromes in humans. The hNa_v1.7/A1632E channel mutant causes symptoms of erythromelalgia and paroxysmal extreme pain disorder (PEPD), and its main gating change is a strongly enhanced persistent current. On the basis of recently published 3D structures of voltage‐gated sodium channels, we investigated how the inactivation particle binds to the channel, how this mechanism is altered by the hNa_v1.7/A1632E mutation, and how dimerization modifies function of the pain‐linked mutation.

Experimental Approach

We applied atomistic molecular simulations to demonstrate the effect of the mutation on channel fast inactivation. Native PAGE was used to demonstrate channel dimerization, and electrophysiological measurements in HEK cells and Xenopus laevis oocytes were used to analyze the links between functional channel dimerization and impairment of fast inactivation by the hNa_v1.7/A1632E mutation.

Key Results

Enhanced persistent current through hNa_v1.7/A1632E channels was caused by impaired binding of the inactivation particle, which inhibits proper functioning of the recently proposed allosteric fast inactivation mechanism. hNa_v1.7 channels form dimers and the disease‐associated persistent current through hNa_v1.7/A1632E channels depends on their functional dimerization status: Expression of the synthetic peptide difopein, a 14‐3‐3 inhibitor known to functionally uncouple dimers, decreased hNa_v1.7/A1632E channel‐induced persistent currents.

Conclusion and Implications

Functional uncoupling of mutant hNa_v1.7/A1632E channel dimers restored their defective allosteric fast inactivation mechanism. Our findings support the concept of sodium channel dimerization and reveal its potential relevance for human pain syndromes.

Identification of a distinct desensitisation gate in the ATP-gated P2X2 receptor

P2X receptors are trimeric ATP-gated ion channels. In response to ATP binding, conformational changes lead to opening of the channel and ion flow. Current flow can decline during continued ATP binding in a process called desensitisation. The rate and extent of desensitisation is affected by multiple factors, for instance the T18A mutation in P2X2 makes the ion channel fast desensitising. We have used this mutation to investigate whether the gate restricting ion flow is different in the desensitised and the closed state, by combining molecular modelling and cysteine modification using MTSET (2-(Trimethylammonium)ethyl methanethiosulfonate). Homology modelling of the P2X2 receptor and negative space imaging of the channel suggested a movement of the restriction gate with residue T335 being solvent accessible in the desensitised, but not the closed state. This was confirmed experimentally by probing the accessibility of T335C in the P2X2 T18A/T335C (fast desensitisation) and T335C (slow desensitisation) mutants with MTSET which demonstrates that the barrier to ion flow is different in the closed and the desensitised states. To investigate the T18A induced switch in desensitisation we compared molecular dynamics simulations of the wild type and T18A P2X2 receptor which suggest that the differences in time course of desensitisation are due to structural destabilization of a hydrogen bond network of conserved residues in the proximity of T18.

Full-Length P2X7 Structures Reveal How Palmitoylation Prevents Channel Desensitization

P2X receptors are trimeric, non-selective cation channels activated by extracellular ATP. The P2X₇ receptor subtype is a pharmacological target because of involvement in apoptotic, inflammatory, and tumor progression pathways. It is the most structurally and functionally distinct P2X subtype, containing a unique cytoplasmic domain critical for the receptor to initiate apoptosis and not undergo desensitization. However, lack of structural information about the cytoplasmic domain has hindered understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes. We report cryoelectron microscopy structures of full-length rat P2X₇ receptor in apo and ATP-bound states. These structures reveal how one cytoplasmic element, the C-cys anchor, prevents desensitization by anchoring the pore-lining helix to the membrane with palmitoyl groups. They show a second cytoplasmic element with a unique fold, the cytoplasmic ballast, which unexpectedly contains a zinc ion complex and a guanosine nucleotide binding site. Our structures provide first insights into the architecture and function of a P2X receptor cytoplasmic domain.

Identification of aurintricarboxylic acid as a potent allosteric antagonist of P2X1 and P2X3 receptors

The homotrimeric P2X3 receptor, one of the seven members of the ATP-gated P2X receptor family, plays a crucial role in sensory neurotransmission. P2X3 receptor antagonists have been identified as promising drugs to treat chronic cough and are suggested to offer pain relief in chronic pain such as neuropathic pain. Here, we analysed whether compounds affect P2X3 receptor activity by high-throughput screening of the Spectrum Collection of 2000 approved drugs, natural products and bioactive substances. We identified aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) as a nanomolar-potency antagonist of P2X3 receptor-mediated responses. Two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology-based concentration-response analysis and selectivity profiling revealed that ATA strongly inhibits the rP2X1 and rP2X3 receptors (with IC₅₀ values of 8.6 nM and 72.9 nM, respectively) and more weakly inhibits P2X2/3, P2X2, P2X4 or P2X7 receptors (IC₅₀ values of 0.76 μM, 22 μM, 763 μM or 118 μM, respectively). Patch-clamp analysis of mouse DRG neurons revealed that ATA inhibited native P2X3 and P2X2/3 receptors to a similar extent than rat P2X3 and P2X2/3 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. In a radioligand binding assay, up to 30 μM ATA did not compete with [³H]-ATP for rP2X3 receptor binding, indicating a non-competitive mechanism of action. Molecular docking studies, site-directed mutagenesis and concentration-response analysis revealed that ATA binds to the negative allosteric site of the hP2X3 receptor. In summary, ATA as a drug-like pharmacological tool compound is a nanomolar-potency, allosteric antagonist with selectivity towards αβ-methylene-ATP-sensitive P2X1 and P2X3 receptors.

Molecular mechanisms of human P2X3 receptor channel activation and modulation by divalent cation bound ATP

P2X3 receptor channels expressed in sensory neurons are activated by extracellular ATP and serve important roles in nociception and sensory hypersensitization, making them attractive therapeutic targets. Although several P2X3 structures are known, it is unclear how physiologically abundant Ca²⁺-ATP and Mg²⁺-ATP activate the receptor, or how divalent cations regulate channel function. We used structural, computational and functional approaches to show that a crucial acidic chamber near the nucleotide-binding pocket in human P2X3 receptors accommodates divalent ions in two distinct modes in the absence and presence of nucleotide. The unusual engagement between the receptor, divalent ion and the γ-phosphate of ATP enables channel activation by ATP-divalent complex, cooperatively stabilizes the nucleotide on the receptor to slow ATP unbinding and recovery from desensitization, a key mechanism for limiting channel activity. These findings reveal how P2X3 receptors recognize and are activated by divalent-bound ATP, aiding future physiological investigations and drug development.

Organization of ATP-gated P2X1 receptor intracellular termini in apo and desensitized states

The intracellular amino and carboxyl termini of the P2X1 receptor associate to form a cytoplasmic cap on the open state. Fryatt et al. use cysteine-reactive cross linking and molecular modeling to demonstrate structural organization of the intracellular termini in the apo and desensitized states.

The human P2X1 receptor (hP2X1R) is a trimeric ligand-gated ion channel opened by extracellular ATP. The intracellular amino and carboxyl termini play significant roles in determining the time-course and regulation of channel gating—for example, the C terminus regulates recovery from the desensitized state following agonist washout. This suggests that the intracellular regions of the channel have distinct structural features. Studies on the hP2X3R have shown that the intracellular regions associate to form a cytoplasmic cap in the open state of the channel. However, intracellular features could not be resolved in the agonist-free apo and ATP-bound desensitized structures. Here we investigate the organization of the intracellular regions of hP2X1R in the apo and ATP-bound desensitized states following expression in HEK293 cells. We couple cysteine scanning mutagenesis of residues R25-G30 and H355-R360 with the use of bi-functional cysteine reactive cross-linking compounds of different lengths (MTS-2-MTS, BMB, and BM(PEG)₂), which we use as molecular calipers. If two cysteine residues come into close proximity, we predict they will be cross-linked and result in ∼66% of the receptor subunits running on a Western blot as dimers. In the control construct (C349A) that removed the free cysteine C349, and some cysteine-containing mutants, cross-linker treatment does not result in dimerization. However, we detect efficient dimerization for R25C, G30C, P358C, K359C, and R360C. This selective pattern indicates that there is structural organization to these regions in the apo and desensitized states in a native membrane environment. The existence of such precap (apo) and postcap (desensitized) organization of the intracellular domains would facilitate efficient gating of the channel.

P2X Receptor Activation

Extracellular ATP-gated P2X receptors are trimeric non-selective cation channels important for many physiological events including immune response and neural transmission. These receptors belong to a unique class of ligand-gated ion channels composed of only six transmembrane helices and a relatively small extracellular domain that harbors three ATP-binding pockets. The crystal structures of P2X receptors, including the recent P2X3 structures representing three different stages of the gating cycle, have provided a compelling structural foundation for understanding how this class of ligand-gated ion channels function. These structures, in combination with numerous functional studies ranging from classic mutagenesis and electrophysiology to modern optogenetic pharmacology, have uncovered unique molecular mechanisms of P2X receptor function. This review article summarizes the current knowledge in P2X receptor activation, especially focusing on the mechanisms underlying ATP-binding, conformational changes in the extracellular domain, and channel gating and desensitization.

X-ray structures define human P2X(3) receptor gating cycle and antagonist action

P2X receptors are trimeric, non-selective cation channels activated by ATP that have important roles in the cardiovascular, neuronal and immune systems. Despite their central function in human physiology and although they are potential targets of therapeutic agents, there are no structures of human P2X receptors. The mechanisms of receptor desensitization and ion permeation, principles of antagonism, and complete structures of the pore-forming transmembrane domains of these receptors remain unclear. Here we report X-ray crystal structures of the human P2X₃ receptor in apo/resting, agonist-bound/open-pore, agonist-bound/closed-pore/desensitized and antagonist-bound/closed states. The open state structure harbours an intracellular motif we term the 'cytoplasmic cap', which stabilizes the open state of the ion channel pore and creates lateral, phospholipid-lined cytoplasmic fenestrations for water and ion egress. The competitive antagonists TNP-ATP and A-317491 stabilize the apo/resting state and reveal the interactions responsible for competitive inhibition. These structures illuminate the conformational rearrangements that underlie P2X receptor gating and provide a foundation for the development of new pharmacological agents.

Inter-subunit disulfide locking of the human P2X3 receptor elucidates ectodomain movements associated with channel gating

P2X3 receptors (P2X3R) are trimeric ATP-gated cation channels involved in sensory neurotransmission and inflammatory pain. We used homology modeling and molecular dynamic simulations of the hP2X3R to identify inter-subunit interactions of residues that are instrumental to elucidate conformational changes associated with gating of the hPX3R. We identified an ionic interaction between E112 and R198 of the head domain and dorsal fin domain, respectively, and E57 and T263 of the lower body domains of adjacent subunits and detected a marked rearrangement of these domains during gating of the hP3X3R. Double-mutant cycle analysis of the inter-subunit residue pairs E112/R198 and E57/T263 revealed significant interaction-free energies. Disulfide locking of the hP2X3R E112C/R198C or the E57C/T263C double cysteine mutants markedly reduced the ATP-induced current responses. The decreased current amplitude following inter-subunit disulfide cross-linking indicates that disulfide locking of the head and dorsal fin domains or at the level of the lower body domains of the hP2X3R prevents the gating-induced conformational rearrangement of the subunits with respect to each other. The distinct reorganization of the subunit interfaces during gating of the hP2X3R is generally consistent with the gating mechanism of other P2XRs. Charge-reversal mutagenesis and methanethiosulfonate (MTS)-modification of substituted cysteines demonstrated that E112 and R198 interact electrostatically. Both disulfide locking and salt bridge breaking of the E112/R198 interaction reduced the hP2X3R function. We conclude that the inter-subunit salt bridge between E112 and R198 of the head and dorsal fin domains, respectively, serves to control the mobility of these domains during agonist-activation of the hP2X3R.

Key sites for P2X receptor function and multimerization: overview of mutagenesis studies on a structural basis

P2X receptors constitute a seven-member family (P2X1-7) of extracellular ATP-gated cation channels of widespread expression. Because P2X receptors have been implicated in neurological, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, they constitute promising drug targets. Since the first P2X cDNA sequences became available in 1994, numerous site-directed mutagenesis studies have been conducted to disclose key sites of P2X receptor function and oligomerization. The publication of the 3-Å crystal structures of the zebrafish P2X4 (zfP2X4) receptor in the homotrimeric apo-closed and ATP-bound open states in 2009 and 2012, respectively, has ushered a new era by allowing for the interpretation of the wealth of molecular data in terms of specific three-dimensional models and by paving the way for designing more-decisive experiments. Thanks to these structures, the last five years have provided invaluable insight into our understanding of the structure and function of the P2X receptor class of ligandgated ion channels. In this review, we provide an overview of mutagenesis studies of the pre- and post-crystal structure eras that identified amino acid residues of key importance for ligand binding, channel gating, ion flow, formation of the pore and the channel gate, and desensitization. In addition, the sites that are involved in the trimerization of P2X receptors are reviewed based on mutagenesis studies and interface contacts that were predicted by the zfP2X4 crystal structures.

Flexible subunit stoichiometry of functional human P2X2/3 heteromeric receptors

The aim of the present work was to clarify whether heterotrimeric P2X2/3 receptors have a fixed subunit stoichiometry consisting of one P2X2 and two P2X3 subunits as previously suggested, or a flexible stoichiometry containing also the inverse subunit composition. For this purpose we transfected HEK293 cells with P2X2 and P2X3 encoding cDNA at the ratios of 1:2 and 4:1, and analysed the biophysical and pharmacological properties of the generated receptors by means of the whole-cell patch-clamp technique. The concentration-response curves for the selective agonist α,β-meATP did not differ from each other under the two transfection ratios. However, co-expression of an inactive P2X2 mutant and the wild type P2X3 subunit and vice versa resulted in characteristic distortions of the α,β-meATP concentration-response relationships, depending on which subunit was expressed in excess, suggesting that HEK293 cells express mixtures of (P2X2)1/(P2X3)2 and (P2X2)2/(P2X3)1 receptors. Whereas the allosteric modulators H+ and Zn2+ failed to discriminate between the two possible heterotrimeric receptor variants, the α,β-meATP-induced responses were blocked more potently by the competitive antagonist A317491, when the P2X2 subunit was expressed in deficit of the P2X3 subunit. Furthermore, blue-native PAGE analysis of P2X2 and P2X3 subunits co-expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and HEK293 cells revealed that plasma membrane-bound P2X2/3 receptors appeared in two clearly distinct heterotrimeric complexes: a (P2X2-GFP)2/(P2X3)1 complex and a (P2X2-GFP)1/(P2X3)2 complex. These data strongly indicate that the stoichiometry of the heteromeric P2X2/3 receptor is not fixed, but determined in a permutational manner by the relative availability of P2X2 and P2X3 subunits.

The nicotinic α6 subunit gene determines variability in chronic pain sensitivity via cross-inhibition of P2X2/3 receptors

Chronic pain is a highly prevalent and poorly managed human health problem. We used microarray-based expression genomics in 25 inbred mouse strains to identify dorsal root ganglion (DRG)-expressed genetic contributors to mechanical allodynia, a prominent symptom of chronic pain. We identified expression levels of Chrna6, which encodes the α6 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), as highly associated with allodynia. We confirmed the importance of α6* (α6-containing) nAChRs by analyzing both gain- and loss-of-function mutants. We find that mechanical allodynia associated with neuropathic and inflammatory injuries is significantly altered in α6* mutants, and that α6* but not α4* nicotinic receptors are absolutely required for peripheral and/or spinal nicotine analgesia. Furthermore, we show that Chrna6's role in analgesia is at least partially due to direct interaction and cross-inhibition of α6* nAChRs with P2X2/3 receptors in DRG nociceptors. Finally, we establish the relevance of our results to humans by the observation of genetic association in patients suffering from chronic postsurgical and temporomandibular pain.

Role of domain calcium in purinergic P2X2 receptor channel desensitization

Activation of P2X2 receptor channels (P2X2Rs) is characterized by a rapid current growth accompanied by a decay of current during sustained ATP application, a phenomenon known as receptor desensitization. Using rat, mouse, and human receptors, we show here that two processes contribute to receptor desensitization: bath calcium-independent desensitization and calcium-dependent desensitization. Calcium-independent desensitization is minor and comparable during repetitive agonist application in cells expressing the full size of the receptor but is pronounced in cells expressing shorter versions of receptors, indicating a role of the COOH terminus in control of receptor desensitization. Calcium-dependent desensitization is substantial during initial agonist application and progressively increases during repetitive agonist application in bath ATP and calcium concentration-dependent manners. Experiments with substitution of bath Na(+) with N-methyl-d-glucamine (NMDG(+)), a large organic cation, indicate that receptor pore dilation is a calcium-independent process in contrast to receptor desensitization. A decrease in the driving force for calcium by changing the holding potential from -60 to +120 mV further indicates that calcium influx through the channel pores at least partially accounts for receptor desensitization. Experiments with various receptor chimeras also indicate that the transmembrane and/or intracellular domains of P2X2R are required for development of calcium-dependent desensitization and that a decrease in the amplitude of current slows receptor desensitization. Simultaneous calcium and current recording shows development of calcium-dependent desensitization without an increase in global intracellular calcium concentrations. Combined with experiments with clamping intrapipette concentrations of calcium at various levels, these experiments indicate that domain calcium is sufficient to establish calcium-dependent receptor desensitization in experiments with whole-cell recordings.

Subtype-specific mechanisms for functional interaction between α6β4* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and P2X receptors

P2X receptors and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) display functional and physical interactions in many cell types and heterologous expression systems, but interactions between α6β4-containing (α6β4*) nAChRs and P2X2 receptors and/or P2X3 receptors have not been fully characterized. We measured several types of crosstalk in oocytes coexpressing α6β4 nAChRs and P2X2, P2X3, or P2X2/3 receptors. A novel form of crosstalk occurs between α6β4 nAChRs and P2X2 receptors. P2X2 receptors were forced into a prolonged desensitized state upon activation by ATP through a mechanism that does not depend on the intracellular C terminus of the P2X2 receptors. Coexpression of α6β4 nAChRs with P2X3 receptors shifts the ATP dose-response relation to the right, even in the absence of acetylcholine (ACh). Moreover, currents become nonadditive when ACh and ATP are coapplied, as previously reported for other Cys-loop receptors interacting with P2X receptors, and this crosstalk is dependent on the presence of the P2X3 C-terminal domain. P2X2 receptors also functionally interact with α6β4β3 but through a different mechanism from α6β4. The interaction with P2X3 receptors is less pronounced for the α6β4β3 nAChR than the α6β4 nAChR. We also measured a functional interaction between the α6β4 nAChRs and the heteromeric P2X2/3 receptor. Experiments with the nAChR channel blocker mecamylamine on P2X2-α6β4 oocytes point to the loss of P2X2 channel activity during the crosstalk, whereas the ion channel pores of the P2X receptors were fully functional and unaltered by the receptor interaction for P2X2-α6β4β3, P2X2/3-α6β4, and P2X2/3-α6β4β3. These results may be relevant to dorsal root ganglion cells and to other neurons that coexpress these receptor subunits.