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Effects of isoflurane anesthesia on addictive behaviors in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2022; 239:3621-3632. [PMID: 36109391 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06236-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recently, it has been suggested that isoflurane might reduce dopamine release from rat midbrain dopaminergic neurons, the neurobiological substrate implicated in the reinforcing effects of abused drugs and nondrug rewards. However, little is known about effects of isoflurane on neurobehavioral activity associated with chronic exposure to psychoactive substances. OBJECTIVE The present study was designed to investigate the effects of isoflurane on cocaine-reinforced behavior. Using behavioral paradigm in rats, we evaluated the effects of isoflurane on cocaine self-administration under fixed ratio (FR) and progressive ratio (PR) schedules of reinforcement. We also tested the effects of isoflurane on lever responding by nondrug reinforcers (sucrose and food) in drug-naive rats to control for the nonselective effects of isoflurane on cocaine- and nicotine-taking behavior. To further assess the ability of isoflurane to modulate the motivation for taking a drug, we evaluated the effects of isoflurane on nicotine self-administration. Using different groups of rats, the effects of isoflurane on the locomotor activity induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of cocaine (15 mg/kg) were also examined. RESULTS Isoflurane significantly suppressed the self-administration of cocaine and nicotine without affecting food consumption. Unlike food-reinforced responding, responding for sucrose reinforcement was decreased by isoflurane. Isoflurane reduced breaking points under a PR schedule of reinforcement in a dose-dependent manner, indicating its efficacy in decreasing the incentive value of cocaine. Isoflurane also attenuated acute cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion. CONCLUSIONS The results provided evidence that isoflurane decreases cocaine- and nicotine-reinforced responses, while isoflurane effect is not selective for cocaine- and nicotine-maintained responding. These results suggest that isoflurane inhibitions of cocaine- and nicotine-maintenance responses may be related to decreased effects of dopamine, and further investigation will need to elucidate this relationship.
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Strzelecki A, Weafer J, Stoops WW. Human behavioral pharmacology of stimulant drugs: An update and narrative review. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2022; 93:77-103. [PMID: 35341574 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Stimulant use disorders present an enduring public health concern. Chronic stimulant use is associated with a range of health problems, with notable increases in stimulant overdose that disproportionately affect marginalized populations. With these persistent problems, it is important to understand the behavioral and pharmacological factors that contribute to stimulant use in humans. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an update and narrative review on recent human laboratory research that has evaluated the behavioral pharmacology of stimulant drugs. We focus on two prototypic stimulants: cocaine as a prototype monoamine reuptake inhibitor and d-amphetamine as a prototype monoamine releaser. As such, placebo controlled human laboratory studies that involved administration of doses of cocaine or d-amphetamine and were published in peer reviewed journals within the last 10 years (i.e., since 2011) are reviewed. Primary outcomes from these studies are subjective effects, reinforcing effects, cognitive/behavioral effects, and discriminative stimulus effects. Both cocaine and d-amphetamine produce classical stimulant-like behavioral effects (e.g., increase positive subjective effects, function as reinforcers), but there are notable gaps in the literature including understanding sex differences in response to stimulant drugs, cognitive-behavioral effects of stimulants, and influence of use history (e.g., relatively drug naïve vs drug experienced) on stimulant effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Strzelecki
- University of Kentucky, Department of Psychology, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Jessica Weafer
- University of Kentucky, Department of Psychology, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - William W Stoops
- University of Kentucky, Department of Psychology, Lexington, KY, United States; University of Kentucky, Department of Behavioral Science, Lexington, KY, United States; University of Kentucky, Department of Psychiatry, Lexington, KY, United States; University of Kentucky, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research, Lexington, KY, United States.
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Stoops WW. A Brief Introduction to Human Behavioral Pharmacology: Methods, Design Considerations and Ethics. Perspect Behav Sci 2022; 45:361-381. [PMID: 35719875 PMCID: PMC9163231 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-022-00330-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human behavioral pharmacology methods have been used to rigorously evaluate the effects of a range of centrally acting drugs in humans under controlled conditions for decades. Methods like drug self-administration and drug discrimination have been adapted from nonhuman laboratory animal models. Because humans have the capacity to communicate verbally, self-report methods are also commonly used to understand drug effects. This perspective article provides an overview of these traditional human behavioral pharmacology methods and introduces some novel methodologies that have more recently been adapted for use in the field. Design (e.g., using placebo controls, testing multiple doses) and ethical (e.g., avoiding enrollment of individuals seeking treatment, determining capacity to consent) considerations that must be addressed when conducting these types of studies are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- William W. Stoops
- University of Kentucky, 1100 Veterans Drive, Medical Behavioral Science Building Room 140, Lexington, KY 40536-0086 USA
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Theunissen EL, Kuypers KPC, Mason NL, Ramaekers JG. A Comparison of Acute Neurocognitive and Psychotomimetic Effects of a Synthetic Cannabinoid and Natural Cannabis at Psychotropic Dose Equivalence. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:891811. [PMID: 35664482 PMCID: PMC9160432 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.891811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to differences in potency, efficacy, and affinity for CB1 receptors, similarities and differences in psychoactive effect profiles of natural cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) cannot reliably be derived from equipotent dose comparisons. Instead, the current study proposes to compare the intrinsic psychoactive effects of natural cannabis (THC) and an SC, JWH-018, at psychotropic dose equivalence. Participants from two placebo-controlled studies were matched for their levels of subjective high to compare neurocognitive and psychotomimetic effects of THC and JWH-018. At equal subjective intoxication levels, both drugs impaired psychomotor, divided attention, and impulse control, with no significant difference between the two drugs. Both drugs also caused significant psychotomimetic effects, but dissociative effects were considerably more pronounced for JWH-018 than THC. We conclude that psychotropic dose equivalence provides a uniform approach for comparing the neurocognitive and psychotomimetic profiles of CB1 agonists, which can also be applied to other drug classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eef Lien Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Kim Paula Colette Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Natasha Leigh Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Johannes Gerardus Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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5
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Baudot J, Soeiro T, Tambon M, Navarro N, Veyrac G, Mezaache S, Micallef J. Safety concerns on the abuse potential of esketamine: Multidimensional analysis of a new anti-depressive drug on the market. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2021; 36:572-581. [PMID: 34907579 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Prominent features of esketamine (e.g., similar mechanism of action as ketamine and target population) require to be vigilant regarding its benefits/risks balance and its risks of abuse in real-life settings. The aim of this study was to review all available pharmacological and clinical data to assess the abuse potential of esketamine shortly after its marketing. This multidimensional study is a quantitative and qualitative analysis of complementary data sources, ranging from preauthorization data (i.e., fundamental pharmacology and clinical trials) to real-life settings data (i.e., pharmacovigilance databases and web forums). According to esketamine pharmacology, its psychoactive effects play a role both in its therapeutic effect and its abuse potential. Only one out of the three short-term efficacy trials found a significant difference between esketamine and placebo in treatment-resistant depression. Beside adverse events that may be sought for abuse purpose (e.g., dissociation, sedation, euphoric mood, hallucination, feeling drunk, and derealization), clinical signs related to substance use disorder (e.g., tolerance, withdrawal syndrome, and drug dependence) and misuse (e.g., off-label use) were also identified in pharmacovigilance databases. Analysis of pharmacovigilance narratives and web forums showed that esketamine psychoactive effects are appreciated by some patients, while they are badly experienced by others. Strict compliance with the market authorization, close monitoring of patients by psychiatrists, and surveillance of any signs of misuse, abuse, or dependence must be part of any treatment course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jules Baudot
- Hôpitaux universitaires de Marseille, Service de pharmacologie clinique, Centre d'évaluation et d'information sur la pharmacodépendance - Addictovigilance, Marseille, France
| | - Thomas Soeiro
- Hôpitaux universitaires de Marseille, Service de pharmacologie clinique, Centre d'évaluation et d'information sur la pharmacodépendance - Addictovigilance, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm, UMR 1106, Marseille, France
| | - Marine Tambon
- Centre hospitalier universitaire de Toulouse, Service de pharmacologie médicale et clinique, Centre d'évaluation et d'information sur la pharmacodépendance - Addictovigilance, Toulouse, France
| | - Nicolas Navarro
- Centre hospitalier universitaire de Toulouse, Service de psychiatrie et psychologie, Centre de soins, d'accompagnement et de prévention en addictologie Maurice Dide, Toulouse, France.,Fédération régionale de recherche en psychiatrie et santé mentale Occitanie, Toulouse, France
| | - Gwenaëlle Veyrac
- Centre hospitalier universitaire de Nantes, Service de pharmacologie clinique, Centre régional de pharmacovigilance, Nantes, France
| | - Salim Mezaache
- Hôpitaux universitaires de Marseille, Service de pharmacologie clinique, Centre d'évaluation et d'information sur la pharmacodépendance - Addictovigilance, Marseille, France
| | - Joëlle Micallef
- Hôpitaux universitaires de Marseille, Service de pharmacologie clinique, Centre d'évaluation et d'information sur la pharmacodépendance - Addictovigilance, Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, Inserm, UMR 1106, Marseille, France
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6
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Kangas BD. Examining the effects of psychoactive drugs on complex behavioral processes in laboratory animals. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2021; 93:243-274. [PMID: 35341568 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral pharmacology has been aided significantly by the development of innovative cognitive tasks designed to examine complex behavioral processes in laboratory animals. Performance outcomes under these conditions have provided key metrics of drug action which serve to supplement traditional in vivo assays of physiologic and behavioral effects of psychoactive drugs. This chapter provides a primer of cognitive tasks designed to assay different aspects of complex behavior, including learning, cognitive flexibility, memory, attention, motivation, and impulsivity. Both capstone studies and recent publications are highlighted throughout to illustrate task value for two distinct but often interconnected translational strategies. First, task performance in laboratory animals can be utilized to elucidate how drugs of abuse affect complex behavioral processes. Here, the expectation is that adverse effects on such processes will have predictive relevance to consequences that will be experienced by humans. Second, these same task outcomes can be used to evaluate candidate therapeutics. In this case, the extent to which drug doses with medicinal value perturb task performance can contribute critical information for a more complete safety profile appraisal and advance the process of medications development. Methodological and theoretical considerations are discussed and include an emphasis on determining selectivity in drug action on complex behavioral processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Kangas
- Behavioral Biology Program, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.
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Caras S, Sharpe T. Pharmacokinetics of AR19, an Immediate-Release Amphetamine Sulfate Formulation Designed to Deter Manipulation for Administration Via Nonoral Routes: Bioequivalence to Reference Racemic Amphetamine Sulfate, Dose Proportionality, and Food Effect. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2020; 30:69-80. [PMID: 31809216 DOI: 10.1089/cap.2019.0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Objectives: We evaluated the pharmacokinetics (PK) of an investigational immediate-release amphetamine (AMP) sulfate formulation (AR19) designed to deter nonoral administration versus reference racemic amphetamine sulfate (RA-AMPH). We investigated AMP bioavailability from AR19, the effect of taking AR19 with food or sprinkling the capsules on food, and dose proportionality. Methods: Participants received AR19 (20 mg) or reference RA-AMPH (20 mg) (bioequivalence study) or AR19 5 or 30 mg (dose comparison study). Food effect study participants received AR19 (20 mg) as intact capsule while fasted or after high-fat/-calorie meal, or as pellets sprinkled on applesauce or yogurt (≥6-day washout). Blood samples were analyzed for dextroamphetamine (d-AMP) and levoamphetamine (l-AMP) PK: Cmax, AUClast, AUCinf, λz, T½, and Tmax. Safety was assessed. Results: Bioequivalence, dose comparison, and food effect studies included 36, 24, and 36 participants. The 90% confidence intervals (CIs) of Cmax, AUClast, and AUCinf for AR19 20 mg versus reference RA-AMPH or AR19 with intact capsule and meal or sprinkled AR19 pellets on food versus fasted were between 80% and 125%. Dose-normalized Cmax/D, AUClast/D, and AUCinf/D for AR19 5 versus 30 mg had CIs within 80%-125%. Mean ± standard deviation (SD) Tmax was comparable for AMP (d-AMP; l-AMP) following AR19 20 mg (2.84 ± 1.05; 3.05 ± 1.22) versus reference RA-AMPH (2.52 ± 0.75; 2.75 ± 1.00), and AR19 5 mg (2.48 ± 0.57; 2.65 ± 0.65) versus AR19 30 mg (2.55 ± 0.56; 2.72 ± 0.65). Mean ± SD Tmax for AMP (d-AMP; l-AMP) was higher with intact capsule and meal (5.59 ± 1.57; 5.59 ± 1.59) versus fasted (2.85 ± 0.76; 2.97 ± 0.79). No serious adverse events were reported. Conclusion: AR19 was bioequivalent to reference RA-AMPH. Bioavailability was similar at doses between 5 and 30 mg and was not impacted by meal consumption or sprinkling on food. AR19 at tested doses was well tolerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Caras
- Clinical Development, Arbor Pharmaceuticals, LLC, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Terrilyn Sharpe
- Clinical Development, Arbor Pharmaceuticals, LLC, Atlanta, Georgia
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8
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Simultaneous determination of metabolic and elemental markers in methamphetamine-induced hepatic injury to rats using LC-MS/MS and ICP-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:3361-3372. [PMID: 31119349 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-01810-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is one of the most highly addictive illicit drugs abused all over the world. Much evidence indicates that METH abuse leads to major toxicity, medical consequences, and even severe public health consequences. Existing studies usually focus on the pathomechanism of METH-induced toxicity; therefore, data on metabolites and elements correlating with particular toxicity remain scarce. The objective of the present study is to develop appropriate analytical procedures to identify the differential metabolic and elemental biomarkers on METH-induced hepatic injury to rats. The rats were administrated with METH (15 mg/mL/kg, two times per day) via intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections for four consecutive days. The alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activity levels of in the rat serum of the METH group increase significantly compared with those of the control group, suggesting obvious hepatic injury. The results are further confirmed by the histopathological microscopic observation. A total of 18 small molecular metabolites and 19 elements are selected to perform the simultaneous quantification based on the combination of liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Sample preparation was optimized to cover all the analytes. Both methods are optimized and validated according to developed guidelines such as limits of detection, limits of quantification, linearity, precision, and recovery. All the obtained data are within the satisfactory range. The normalized data were processed according to the partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA) model. Five differential metabolic and six elemental markers are identified in rat plasma based on the variable importance in projection (VIP) (> 1) and t test results. Overall, the results obtained in this study demonstrate the developed methods are suitable for simultaneous determination of metabolic and elemental markers in the hepatic injury to rats induced by METH. Graphical abstract.
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9
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Mitchell CM, El Jordi O, Yamamoto BK. Inflammatory mechanisms of abused drugs. ROLE OF INFLAMMATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL NEUROTOXICITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ant.2018.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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Pathak S, Vince B, Kelsh D, Setnik B, Nangia N, DiPetrillo L, Puhl MD, Sun L, Stanford AD, Ehrich E. Abuse Potential of Samidorphan: A Phase I, Oxycodone-, Pentazocine-, Naltrexone-, and Placebo-Controlled Study. J Clin Pharmacol 2018; 59:218-228. [DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bradley Vince
- Vince & Associates Clinical Research, Altasciences; Overland Park KS USA
| | - Debra Kelsh
- Vince & Associates Clinical Research, Altasciences; Overland Park KS USA
| | - Beatrice Setnik
- Syneos Health; Raleigh NC USA
- University of Toronto; Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology; Toronto ON Canada
| | | | | | | | - Lei Sun
- Alkermes, Inc.; Waltham MA USA
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Rohde C, Polcwiartek C, Asztalos M, Nielsen J. Effectiveness of Prescription-Based CNS Stimulants on Hospitalization in Patients With Schizophrenia: A Nation-Wide Register Study. Schizophr Bull 2018; 44:93-100. [PMID: 28379483 PMCID: PMC5768038 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbx043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Negative symptoms and cognitive deficits are main features of schizophrenia but with limited treatment options. Earlier studies have suggested that central nervous system (CNS) stimulants have a small effect on these domains, but with inconclusive results. As the first study to date, we aimed to investigate whether CNS stimulants improve naturalistic outcomes (psychiatric admissions and antipsychotic use) in patients with schizophrenia. METHODS By using extensive health registers all patients with schizophrenia and their use of CNS stimulants in Denmark were identified. Two models were used to investigate the effectiveness of CNS stimulants in patients with schizophrenia between 1995 and 2014; a mirror-image model with 605 individuals, using paired t tests and Wilcoxon signed rank tests, and a follow-up study with 789 individuals, using a conditional risk-set model. RESULTS CNS stimulants use was associated with a reduction in number of psychiatric admissions from 3.43 (95% CI = 2.86 to 4.01) to 2.62 (95% CI = 1.99 to 3.25) (P = .009), with a more pronounced reduction for women (mean difference: -1.37, 95% CI = -2.34 to -0.40, P = .006). Psychiatric bed-days were reduced by 40 (95% CI = 24.5 to 55.6, P < .001) for individuals with at least 1 admission before CNS stimulant use. In addition, the total amount of antipsychotic use (Defined Daily Dose [DDD]) was reduced (P = .001). The Hazard rate ratio in psychiatric admissions between women taking CNS stimulants compared to women not taking CNS stimulants was 0.77 (95% CI = 0.67 to 0.88). CONCLUSION CNS stimulants may have clinical potentials for improving functional outcomes in patients with schizophrenia and randomized clinical studies evaluating this topic are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Rohde
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark,Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, Center for Psychosis, Aalborg University Hospital, Brandevej 5, Aalborg Ø 9220, Denmark; tel: +45-28-26-09-90, e-mail:
| | - Christoffer Polcwiartek
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark,Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Marton Asztalos
- Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark,School of PhD Studies, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jimmi Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark,Department of Psychiatry, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark,Mental Health Centre Glostrup, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Walsh SL, Babalonis S. The Abuse Potential of Prescription Opioids in Humans-Closing in on the First Century of Research. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 34:33-58. [PMID: 27356522 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
While opioids are very effective analgesics for treating acute pain, humans have struggled with opiate addiction for millenia. An opium abuse epidemic in the early 1900's led the US government to develop a systematic research infrastructure and scientific plan to produce new compounds with analgesic properties but without abuse liability. This review describes the techniques that were developed for testing in the human laboratory, including empirically derived outcome measures and required elements for human abuse potential assessment. The evaluation and characterization of semi-synthetic and synthetic opioids, including full mu opioid agonists, partial agonists and mixed agonist-antagonists, are described across several decades of research. Finally, the prescription opioid epidemic beginning in the 1990's in the US led to a resurgence in abuse potential evaluations, and the application of these methods to the study of novel abuse-deterrent formulations is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon L Walsh
- Department of Behavioral Science, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA.
| | - Shanna Babalonis
- Department of Behavioral Science, Center on Drug and Alcohol Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
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Hopyan T, Geoffroy P, Hirata Y, Sokolowska M, Setnik B. Redefining the Recreational Drug User Population in Human Abuse Potential Studies. J Clin Pharmacol 2015; 56:657-9. [PMID: 26380952 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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14
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Shanks RA, Ross JM, Doyle HH, Helton AK, Picou BN, Schulz J, Tavares C, Bryant S, Dawson BL, Lloyd SA. Adolescent exposure to cocaine, amphetamine, and methylphenidate cross-sensitizes adults to methamphetamine with drug- and sex-specific effects. Behav Brain Res 2014; 281:116-24. [PMID: 25496784 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The increasing availability, over-prescription, and misuse and abuse of ADHD psychostimulant medications in adolescent populations necessitates studies investigating the long-term effects of these drugs persisting into adulthood. Male and female C57Bl/6J mice were exposed to amphetamine (AMPH) (1.0 and 10 mg/kg), methylphenidate (MPD) (1.0 and 10 mg/kg), or cocaine (COC) (5.0 mg/kg) from postnatal day 22 to 31, which represents an early adolescent period. After an extended period of drug abstinence, adult mice were challenged with a subacute methamphetamine (METH) dose (0.5 mg/kg), to test the long-term effects of adolescent drug exposures on behavioral cross-sensitization using an open field chamber. There were no sex- or dose-specific effects on motor activity in adolescent, saline-treated controls. However, AMPH, MPD, and COC adolescent exposures induced cross-sensitization to a subacute METH dose in adulthood, which is a hallmark of addiction and a marker of long-lasting plastic changes in the brain. Of additional clinical importance, AMPH-exposed male mice demonstrated increased cross-sensitization to METH in contrast to the female-specific response observed in MPD-treated animals. There were no sex-specific effects after adolescent COC exposures. This study demonstrates differential drug, dose, and sex-specific alterations induced by early adolescent psychostimulant exposure, which leads to behavioral alterations that persist into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan A Shanks
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Jordan M Ross
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Hillary H Doyle
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Amanda K Helton
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Brittany N Picou
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Jordyn Schulz
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Chris Tavares
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Sarah Bryant
- Department of Biology, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Bryan L Dawson
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
| | - Steven A Lloyd
- Department of Psychological Science, University of North Georgia, Dahlonega, GA, USA.
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Abstract
Medications promoting wakefulness are currently used in psychopharmacology in different contexts and with different objectives. In particular, they may be used for the treatment of syndromes that primarily show significant impairment in alertness/wakefulness (e.g., excessive sleepiness and other sleep disorders) as well as for the symptomatic treatment of different neuropsychiatric disorders that, in turn, are not exclusively characterized by sleep-wake disturbances (like mood disorders, for instance). In addition, several psychotropic compounds, including some antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, antidepressants, and anxiolytics have well-established sedating side effects that may go beyond the therapeutic target and require the symptomatic use of wake-promoting agents. Even though such a clinical scenario reflects millions of individuals affected (alterations of wakefulness have a prevalence rate of 20-43% in the general population), relatively few pharmacotherapies are available, mainly including compounds with psychostimulating effects, such as methylphenidate, modafinil, and armodafinil and some amphetaminic agents. In light of their side effects and potential for abuse, such compounds have received FDA approval only for a limited number of psychiatric disorders. Nonetheless, their clinical application has recently become more widespread, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy, treatment-resistant depression, bipolar disorder, shift work sleep disorder, schizophrenia, and addictions. Wake-promoting agents have different mechanisms of action, peculiar clinical strengths and specific limitations, with novel drugs in the field under extensive investigation. The present review is aimed to provide an updated overview of the aforementioned compounds as well as investigational drugs in the field, in terms of mechanism of action, indications and use in clinical practice.
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New perspectives on using brain imaging to study CNS stimulants. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:104-14. [PMID: 25080072 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
While the recent application of brain imaging to study CNS stimulants has offered new insights into the fundamental factors that contribute to their use and abuse, many gaps remain. Brain circuits that mediate pleasure, dependence, craving and relapse are anatomically, neurophysiologically and neurochemically distinct from one another, which has guided the search for correlates of stimulant-seeking and taking behavior. However, unlike other drugs of abuse, metrics for tolerance and physical dependence on stimulants are not obvious. The dopamine theory of stimulant abuse does not sufficiently explain this disorder as serotonergic, GABAergic and glutamagergic circuits are clearly involved in stimulant pharmacology and so tracking the source of the "addictive" processes must adopt a more multimodal, multidisciplinary approach. To this end, both anatomical and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), MR spectroscopy (MRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) are complementary and have equally contributed to our understanding of how stimulants affect the brain and behavior. New vistas in this area include nanotechnology approaches to deliver small molecules to receptors and use MRI to resolve receptor dynamics. Anatomical and blood flow imaging has yielded data showing that cognitive enhancers might be useful adjuncts in treating CNS stimulant dependence, while MRS has opened opportunities to examine the brain's readiness to accept treatment as GABA tone normalizes after detoxification. A desired outcome of the above approaches is being able to offer evidence-based rationales for treatment approaches that can be implemented in a more broad geographic area, where access to brain imaging facilities may be limited. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.
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Epidemiology of stimulant misuse and abuse: implications for future epidemiologic and neuropharmacologic research. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:91-6. [PMID: 24813641 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Revised: 04/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Stimulants are a diverse array of drugs that range from everyday caffeine to prescription medications and illicitly manufactured street drugs. The surveillance of misuse and abuse of stimulants many times confounds prescription and illicit street drugs such that the data are not specific enough to guide mitigation efforts or assess their impact. This review highlights the surveillance efforts that are conducted in the United States (US) for stimulant misuse and abuse. These surveillance efforts include national level surveys as well as reporting systems such as Poison Centers and emergency departments. This epidemiologic analysis has implications for interpreting the current known neuropharmacology of stimulants and possibly informing future neuropharmacology research that may contribute to a better understanding of potential neuropharmacologic factors influencing differing patterns of use, abuse, and adverse consequences associated with various stimulants. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.
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