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Liu XH, Liu XT, Wu Y, Li SA, Ren KD, Cheng M, Huang B, Yang Y, Liu PP. Broadening Horizons: Exploring the Cathepsin Family as Therapeutic Targets for Alzheimer's Disease. Aging Dis 2024:AD.2024.0456. [PMID: 39122455 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2024.0456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an intricate neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of misfolded proteins, including beta-amyloid (Aβ) and tau, leading to cognitive decline. Despite decades of research, the precise mechanisms underlying its onset and progression remain elusive. Cathepsins are a family of lysosomal enzymes that play vital roles in cellular processes, including protein degradation and regulation of immune responses. Emerging evidence suggests that cathepsins may be involved in AD pathogenesis. Cathepsins can influence the activation of microglia and astrocytes, the resident immune cells in the brain. However, cathepsin dysfunction may lead to the accumulation of misfolded proteins, notably Aβ and tau. In addition, dysregulated cathepsin activity may induce an exaggerated immune response, promoting chronic inflammation and neuronal dysfunction in patients with AD. By unraveling the classification, functions, and roles of cathepsins in AD's pathogenesis, this review sheds light on their intricate involvement in this devastating disease. Targeting cathepsin activity could be a promising and novel approach for mitigating the pathological processes that contribute to AD, providing new avenues for its treatment and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Hui Liu
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- The Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Xiao-Tong Liu
- Clinical Laboratory, the First Hospital of Yongnian District, Yongnian, Hebei, China
| | - Yue Wu
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- The Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Shu-Ang Li
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Kai-Di Ren
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Meng Cheng
- Translational Medical Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Bing Huang
- Brain Function and Disease Laboratory, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Pei-Pei Liu
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
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2
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Horvat S, Kos J, Pišlar A. Multifunctional roles of γ-enolase in the central nervous system: more than a neuronal marker. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:61. [PMID: 38735971 PMCID: PMC11089681 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01240-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Enolase, a multifunctional protein with diverse isoforms, has generally been recognized for its primary roles in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The shift in isoform expression from α-enolase to neuron-specific γ-enolase extends beyond its enzymatic role. Enolase is essential for neuronal survival, differentiation, and the maturation of neurons and glial cells in the central nervous system. Neuron-specific γ-enolase is a critical biomarker for neurodegenerative pathologies and neurological conditions, not only indicating disease but also participating in nerve cell formation and neuroprotection and exhibiting neurotrophic-like properties. These properties are precisely regulated by cysteine peptidase cathepsin X and scaffold protein γ1-syntrophin. Our findings suggest that γ-enolase, specifically its C-terminal part, may offer neuroprotective benefits against neurotoxicity seen in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Furthermore, although the therapeutic potential of γ-enolase seems promising, the effectiveness of enolase inhibitors is under debate. This paper reviews the research on the roles of γ-enolase in the central nervous system, especially in pathophysiological events and the regulation of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selena Horvat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova Cesta 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anja Pišlar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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3
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Stoka V, Vasiljeva O, Nakanishi H, Turk V. The Role of Cysteine Protease Cathepsins B, H, C, and X/Z in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15613. [PMID: 37958596 PMCID: PMC10650516 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Papain-like cysteine proteases are composed of 11 human cysteine cathepsins, originally located in the lysosomes. They exhibit broad specificity and act as endopeptidases and/or exopeptidases. Among them, only cathepsins B, H, C, and X/Z exhibit exopeptidase activity. Recently, cysteine cathepsins have been found to be present outside the lysosomes and often participate in various pathological processes. Hence, they have been considered key signalling molecules. Their potentially hazardous proteolytic activities are tightly regulated. This review aims to discuss recent advances in understanding the structural aspects of these four cathepsins, mechanisms of their zymogen activation, regulation of their activities, and functional aspects of these enzymes in neurodegeneration and cancer. Neurodegenerative effects have been evaluated, particularly in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Cysteine cathepsins also participate in tumour progression and metastasis through the overexpression and secretion of proteases, which trigger extracellular matrix degradation. To our knowledge, this is the first review to provide an in-depth analysis regarding the roles of cysteine cathepsins B, H, C, and X in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Further advances in understanding the functions of cysteine cathepsins in these conditions will result in the development of novel, targeted therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Olga Vasiljeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- CytomX Therapeutics, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Hiroshi Nakanishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yasuda Women’s University, Hiroshima 731-0153, Japan;
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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4
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Rakić M, Lunić T, Bekić M, Tomić S, Mitić K, Graovac S, Božić B, Božić Nedeljković B. Vitamin B complex suppresses neuroinflammation in activated microglia: in vitro and in silico approach combined with dynamical modeling. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 121:110525. [PMID: 37356121 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Activated microglia is critically involved in the regulation of neuroinflammation/neurodegradation. Hereby, the anti-inflammatory effects of the vitamin B complex (VBC - B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, and B12) on the function and phenotype of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 microglial cells were examined in vitro. Additionally, VBC-treated microglia supernatants were evaluated on SH-SY5Y cells to investigate the effects on neurons' viability. Further, anti-inflammatory mechanisms of VBC were examined by molecular dockingstudies to determine the binding affinity of each VBC component to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signalling pathway proteins and inducible nitric oxide synthase. In addition, the dynamical model which simulates VBC inhibition of TLR4 signalling pathway proteins activated by LPS has been constructed and excellent agreement with experimental data has been observed (adjR2 = 0.9715 and 0.9909 for TNF-α and IL-6, respectively). The obtained data demonstrated that VBC treatment reduced the inflammatory mediators secreted by LPS-stimulated microglia, diminished their neurotoxic effects against neurons, and induced changes in phenotype profile toward M2 microglia type. Finally, the constructed dynamical model provides deeper insight into the involvement of each VBC component on the VBC inhibitory potential toward the TLR4 signalling pathway and enables optimization of novel VBC formulations as well as inhibitory potential of new putative inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Rakić
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Biology, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Tanja Lunić
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Biology, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Marina Bekić
- University of Belgrade, Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy, INEP, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Sergej Tomić
- University of Belgrade, Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy, INEP, 11080 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Katarina Mitić
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Biology, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Stefan Graovac
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Physics, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Bojan Božić
- University of Belgrade, Faculty of Biology, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia.
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5
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Senjor E, Kos J, Nanut MP. Cysteine Cathepsins as Therapeutic Targets in Immune Regulation and Immune Disorders. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020476. [PMID: 36831012 PMCID: PMC9953096 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins, as the most abundant proteases found in the lysosomes, play a vital role in several processes-such as protein degradation, changes in cell signaling, cell morphology, migration and proliferation, and energy metabolism. In addition to their lysosomal function, they are also secreted and may remain functional in the extracellular space. Upregulation of cathepsin expression is associated with several pathological conditions including cancer, neurodegeneration, and immune-system dysregulation. In this review, we present an overview of cysteine-cathepsin involvement and possible targeting options for mitigation of aberrant function in immune disorders such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and immune response in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Senjor
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Milica Perišić Nanut
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence:
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6
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Kos J, Mitrović A, Perišić Nanut M, Pišlar A. Lysosomal peptidases – Intriguing roles in cancer progression and neurodegeneration. FEBS Open Bio 2022; 12:708-738. [PMID: 35067006 PMCID: PMC8972049 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.13372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomal peptidases are hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting waste proteins that are targeted to lysosomes via endocytosis and autophagy. Besides intracellular protein catabolism, they play more specific roles in several other cellular processes and pathologies, either within lysosomes, upon secretion into the cell cytoplasm or extracellular space, or bound to the plasma membrane. In cancer, lysosomal peptidases are generally associated with disease progression, as they participate in crucial processes leading to changes in cell morphology, signaling, migration, and invasion, and finally metastasis. However, they can also enhance the mechanisms resulting in cancer regression, such as apoptosis of tumor cells or antitumor immune responses. Lysosomal peptidases have also been identified as hallmarks of aging and neurodegeneration, playing roles in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, abnormal intercellular communication, dysregulated trafficking, and the deposition of protein aggregates in neuronal cells. Furthermore, deficiencies in lysosomal peptidases may result in other pathological states, such as lysosomal storage disease. The aim of this review was to highlight the role of lysosomal peptidases in particular pathological processes of cancer and neurodegeneration and to address the potential of lysosomal peptidases in diagnosing and treating patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janko Kos
- University of Ljubljana Faculty of Pharmacy Aškerčeva 7 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
- Jožef Stefan Institute Department of Biotechnology Jamova 39 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Ana Mitrović
- Jožef Stefan Institute Department of Biotechnology Jamova 39 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Milica Perišić Nanut
- Jožef Stefan Institute Department of Biotechnology Jamova 39 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
| | - Anja Pišlar
- University of Ljubljana Faculty of Pharmacy Aškerčeva 7 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia
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7
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Cysteine Peptidase Cathepsin X as a Therapeutic Target for Simultaneous TLR3/4-mediated Microglia Activation. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:2258-2276. [PMID: 35066760 PMCID: PMC9016010 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02694-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are resident macrophages in the central nervous system that are involved in immune responses driven by Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Microglia-mediated inflammation can lead to central nervous system disorders, and more than one TLR might be involved in these pathological processes. The cysteine peptidase cathepsin X has been recognized as a pathogenic factor for inflammation-induced neurodegeneration. Here, we hypothesized that simultaneous TLR3 and TLR4 activation induces synergized microglia responses and that these phenotype changes affect cathepsin X expression and activity. Murine microglia BV2 cells and primary murine microglia were exposed to the TLR3 ligand polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) and the TLR4 ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS), individually and simultaneously. TLR3 and TLR4 co-activation resulted in increased inflammatory responses compared to individual TLR activation, where poly(I:C) and LPS induced distinct patterns of proinflammatory factors together with different patterns of cathepsin X expression and activity. TLR co-activation decreased intracellular cathepsin X activity and increased cathepsin X localization at the plasma membrane with concomitant increased extracellular cathepsin X protein levels and activity. Inhibition of cathepsin X in BV2 cells by AMS36, cathepsin X inhibitor, significantly reduced the poly(I:C)- and LPS-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines as well as apoptosis. Additionally, inhibiting the TLR3 and TLR4 common signaling pathway, PI3K, with LY294002 reduced the inflammatory responses of the poly(I:C)- and LPS-activated microglia and recovered cathepsin X activity. We here provide evidence that microglial cathepsin X strengthens microglia activation and leads to subsequent inflammation-induced neurodegeneration. As such, cathepsin X represents a therapeutic target for treating neurodegenerative diseases related to excess inflammation.
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8
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Mitrović A, Završnik J, Mikhaylov G, Knez D, Pečar Fonović U, Matjan Štefin P, Butinar M, Gobec S, Turk B, Kos J. Evaluation of novel cathepsin-X inhibitors in vitro and in vivo and their ability to improve cathepsin-B-directed antitumor therapy. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:34. [PMID: 34989869 PMCID: PMC8738504 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-04117-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
New therapeutic targets that could improve current antitumor therapy and overcome cancer resistance are urgently needed. Promising candidates are lysosomal cysteine cathepsins, proteolytical enzymes involved in various critical steps during cancer progression. Among them, cathepsin X, which acts solely as a carboxypeptidase, has received much attention. Our results indicate that the triazole-based selective reversible inhibitor of cathepsin X named Z9 (1-(2,3-dihydrobenzo[b][1,4]dioxin-6-yl)-2-((4-isopropyl-4H-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)thio)ethan-1-one) significantly reduces tumor progression, both in vitro in cell-based functional assays and in vivo in two independent tumor mouse models: the FVB/PyMT transgenic and MMTV-PyMT orthotopic breast cancer mouse models. One of the mechanisms by which cathepsin X contributes to cancer progression is the compensation of cathepsin-B activity loss. Our results confirm that cathepsin-B inhibition is compensated by an increase in cathepsin X activity and protein levels. Furthermore, the simultaneous inhibition of both cathepsins B and X with potent, selective, reversible inhibitors exerted a synergistic effect in impairing processes of tumor progression in in vitro cell-based assays of tumor cell migration and spheroid growth. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Z9 impairs tumor progression both in vitro and in vivo and can be used in combination with other peptidase inhibitors as an innovative approach to overcome resistance to antipeptidase therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Mitrović
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000, Ljubljana,, Slovenia.
| | - Janja Završnik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Georgy Mikhaylov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damijan Knez
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Petra Matjan Štefin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Miha Butinar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stanislav Gobec
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000, Ljubljana,, Slovenia.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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9
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New Insights into the Role of Cysteine Cathepsins in Neuroinflammation. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11121796. [PMID: 34944440 PMCID: PMC8698589 DOI: 10.3390/biom11121796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation, which is mediated by microglia and astrocytes, is associated with the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Increasing evidence shows that activated microglia induce the expression and secretion of various lysosomal cathepsins, particularly during the early stage of neuroinflammation. This trigger signaling cascade that aggravate neurodegeneration. To date, most research on neuroinflammation has focused on the role of cysteine cathepsins, the largest cathepsin family. Cysteine cathepsins are primarily responsible for protein degradation in lysosomes; however, they also play a role in regulating a number of other important physiological and pathological processes. This review focuses on the functional roles of cysteine cathepsins in the central nervous system during neuroinflammation, with an emphasis on their roles in the polarization of microglia and neuroinflammation signaling, which in turn causes neuronal death and thus neurodegeneration.
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10
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Tsukahara A, Hosokawa T, Nishioka D, Kotani T, Ishida S, Takeuchi T, Kimura F, Arawaka S. Neuron-specific enolase level is a useful biomarker for distinguishing amyotrophic lateral sclerosis from cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22827. [PMID: 34819571 PMCID: PMC8613178 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02310-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study aimed to evaluate whether cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) neuron-specific enolase (NSE) levels are elevated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and are effective in distinguishing ALS from cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM). We retrospectively evaluated 45 patients with ALS, 23 with CSM, 28 controls, and 10 with Parkinson's disease (PD) who underwent analysis of CSF NSE levels. The control group comprised patients aged above 45 years who underwent lumbar puncture because of suspected neurological disorders that were ruled out after extensive investigations. CSF NSE levels were evaluated using the electro-chemiluminescent immunoassay. The ALS group had significantly higher CSF NSE levels than the CSM and control groups (P < 0.001 for both comparisons). The CSM, control, and PD groups did not significantly differ in terms of CSF NSE levels. A receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to assess the diagnostic value of CSF NSE levels in distinguishing ALS from CSM. The area under the curve for CSF NSE levels was 0.86. The optimal cutoff value was 17.7 ng/mL, with a specificity of 87% and a sensitivity of 80%. Hence, CSF NSE levels are elevated in ALS and are effective in distinguishing ALS from CSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Tsukahara
- Division of Neurology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 2-7 Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka, 569-8686, Japan
| | - Takafumi Hosokawa
- Division of Neurology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 2-7 Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka, 569-8686, Japan.
| | - Daisuke Nishioka
- Department of Medical Statistics, Research and Development Center, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takuya Kotani
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shimon Ishida
- Division of Neurology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 2-7 Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka, 569-8686, Japan
| | - Tohru Takeuchi
- Department of Medical Statistics, Research and Development Center, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Fumiharu Kimura
- Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University Mishima-Minami Hospital, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shigeki Arawaka
- Division of Neurology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, 2-7 Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka, 569-8686, Japan
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11
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Perišić Nanut M, Pečar Fonović U, Jakoš T, Kos J. The Role of Cysteine Peptidases in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Differentiation and Modulation of Immune System Function. Front Immunol 2021; 12:680279. [PMID: 34335582 PMCID: PMC8322073 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.680279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cysteine cathepsins are primarily involved in the degradation and recycling of proteins in endo-lysosomal compartments but are also gaining recognition as pivotal proteolytic contributors to various immune functions. Through their extracellular proteolytic activities within the hematopoietic stem cell niche, they are involved in progenitor cell mobilization and differentiation. Cysteine cathepsins, such as cathepsins L and S contribute to antigen-induced adaptive immunity through major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation whereas cathepsin X regulates T-cell migration. By regulating toll-like receptor signaling and cytokine secretion cysteine cathepsins activate innate immune cells and affect their functional differentiation. Cathepsins C and H are expressed in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and are involved in processing of pro-granzymes into proteolytically active forms. Cytoplasmic activities of cathepsins B and L contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis of the adaptive immune response by regulating cell death of T and B lymphocytes. The expression pattern, localization, and activity of cysteine cathepsins is tightly connected to their function in immune cells. Furthermore, cysteine cathepsins together with their endogenous inhibitors, serve as mediators in the interplay between cancer and immune cells that results in immune cell anergy. The aim of the present article is to review the mechanisms of dysregulation of cysteine cathepsins and their inhibitors in relation to immune dysfunction to address new possibilities for regulation of their function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tanja Jakoš
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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12
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Pišlar A, Tratnjek L, Glavan G, Zidar N, Živin M, Kos J. Neuroinflammation-Induced Upregulation of Glial Cathepsin X Expression and Activity in vivo. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:575453. [PMID: 33328882 PMCID: PMC7714997 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.575453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is an important factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Microglia-derived lysosomal cathepsins have been increasingly recognized as important inflammatory mediators that trigger signaling pathways that aggravate neuroinflammation. In vitro, a contribution to neuroinflammation processes has been shown for cathepsin X: however, the expression patterns and functional role of cathepsin X in neuroinflammatory brain pathology remain elusive. In this study we analyzed the expression, activity, regional distribution and cellular localization of cathepsin X in the rat brain with neuroinflammation-induced neurodegeneration. The unilateral injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced a strong upregulation of cathepsin X expression and its activity in the ipsilateral striatum. In addition to the striatum, cathepsin X overexpression was detected in other brain areas such as the cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, subventricular zone and external globus pallidus, whereas the upregulation was mainly restricted to activated microglia and reactive astrocytes. Continuous administration of the cathepsin X inhibitor AMS36 indicated protective effects against LPS-induced striatal degeneration, as seen by the attenuated LPS-mediated dilation of the lateral ventricles and partial decreased extent of striatal lesion. Taken together, our results indicate that cathepsin X plays a role as a pathogenic factor in neuroinflammation-induced neurodegeneration and represents a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases associated with neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Pišlar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Larisa Tratnjek
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Institute of Cell Biology, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gordana Glavan
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nace Zidar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Živin
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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13
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Upregulation of Cathepsins in Olfactory Bulbs Is Associated with Transient Olfactory Dysfunction in Mice with Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 57:3412-3423. [PMID: 32529488 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-01952-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsins are a family of lysosomal/endosomal proteolytic enzymes that include serine, aspartate, and cysteine proteases. The role of cathepsin in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, remains elusive. We evaluated the expression level and localization of different cathepsins in the olfactory bulbs of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of human multiple sclerosis. Quantitative real-time PCR results and Western blotting analyses revealed that serine, aspartate, and cysteine cathepsins are expressed at significantly higher levels in the olfactory bulbs of mice with EAE in the paralytic stage compared with those of control mice. Immunohistochemical analyses indicated that cathepsin A, D, and S were expressed in the glomerulus layer, external plexiform layer, and mitral cell layer. Furthermore, cathepsins were detected in astrocytes, microglia, inflammatory cells, and vascular cells in the olfactory bulb of EAE mice at the paralytic stage. Collectively, these results suggest that the upregulation of cathepsins in the olfactory bulb of mice with EAE is associated with transient olfactory dysfunction in autoimmune encephalomyelitis.
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14
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Nakanishi H. Cathepsin regulation on microglial function. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1868:140465. [PMID: 32526473 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident mononuclear phagocyte population in the brain, have long been implicated in the pathology of neurodegenerative age-associated disorders. However, activated microglia have now been identified as homeostatic keepers in the brain, because they are involved in the initiation and resolution of neuropathology. The complex roles of activated microglia appear to be linked to change from inflammatory and neurotoxic to anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective phenotypes. Increased expression and secretion of various cathepsins support roles of activated microglia in chronic neuroinflammation, the neurotoxic M1-like polarization and neuronal death. Moreover, changes in expression and localization of microglial cathepsin B play a critical role in the acceleration of the brain aging. Beyond the role as brain-resident macrophages, many lines of evidence have shown that microglia have essential roles in the maturation and maintenance of neuronal circuits in the developing and adult brain. Cathepsin S secreted from microglia induces the diurnal variation of spine density of cortical neurons though proteolytic modification of peri-synaptic extracellular matrix molecules. In this review, I highlight the emerging roles of cathepsins that support the roles of microglia in both normal healthy and pathological brains. In addition, I discuss cathepsin inhibitors as potential therapeutic targets for brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Nakanishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yasuda Women's University, Hiroshima 731-0153, Japan.
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15
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Fonović UP, Knez D, Hrast M, Zidar N, Proj M, Gobec S, Kos J. Structure-activity relationships of triazole-benzodioxine inhibitors of cathepsin X. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 193:112218. [PMID: 32208223 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cathepsin X is a cysteine carboxypeptidase that is involved in various physiological and pathological processes. In particular, highly elevated expression and activity of cathepsin X has been observed in cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. Previously, we identified compound Z9 (1-(2,3-dihydrobenzo[b][1,4]dioxin-6-yl)-2-((4-isopropyl-4H-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)thio)ethan-1-one) as a potent and specific reversible cathepsin X inhibitor. Here, we have explored the effects of chemical variations to Z9 of either benzodioxine or triazol moieties, and the importance of the central ketomethylenethio linker. The ketomethylenethio linker was crucial for cathepsin X inhibition, whereas changes of the triazole heterocycle did not alter the inhibitory potencies to a greater extent. Replacement of benzodioxine moiety with substituted benzenes reduced cathepsin X inhibition. Overall, several synthesized compounds showed similar or improved inhibitory potencies against cathepsin X compared to Z9, with IC50 values of 7.1 μM-13.6 μM. Additionally, 25 inhibited prostate cancer cell migration by 21%, which is under the control of cathepsin X.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urša Pečar Fonović
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Damijan Knez
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Martina Hrast
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Nace Zidar
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Matic Proj
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stanislav Gobec
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva 7, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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16
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Phytoestrogen Agathisflavone Ameliorates Neuroinflammation-Induced by LPS and IL-1β and Protects Neurons in Cocultures of Glia/Neurons. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10040562. [PMID: 32272581 PMCID: PMC7225953 DOI: 10.3390/biom10040562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation and oxidative stress are common aspects of most neurodegenerative diseases in the central nervous system. In this context, microglia and astrocytes are central to mediating the balance between neuroprotective and neurodestructive mechanisms. Flavonoids have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Here, we have examined the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective potential of the flavonoid agathisflavone (FAB), which is derived from the Brazilian plant Poincianella pyramidalis, in in vitro models of neuroinflammation. Cocultures of neurons/glial cells were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 µg/mL) or interleukin (IL)-1β (10 ng/mL) for 24 h and treated with FAB (0.1 and 1 µM, 24 h). FAB displayed a significant neuroprotective effect, as measured by nitric oxide (NO) production, Fluoro-Jade B (FJ-B) staining, and immunocytochemistry (ICC) for the neuronal marker β-tubulin and the cell death marker caspase-3, preserving neuronal soma and increasing neurite outgrowth. FAB significantly decreased the LPS-induced microglial proliferation, identified by ICC for Iba-1/bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and CD68 (microglia M1 profile marker). In contrast, FAB had no apparent effect on astrocytes, as determined by ICC for glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Furthermore, FAB protected against the cytodestructive and proinflammatory effects of IL-1β, a key cytokine that is released by activated microglia and astrocytes, and ICC showed that combined treatment of FAB with α and β estrogen receptor antagonists did not affect NF-κB expression. In addition, qPCR analysis demonstrated that FAB decreased the expression of proinflammatory molecules TNF-α, IL-1β, and connexins CCL5 and CCL2, as well as increased the expression of the regulatory molecule IL-10. Together, these findings indicate that FAB has a significant neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effect in vitro, which may be considered as an adjuvant for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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17
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Valiati FE, Hizo GH, Pinto JV, Kauer-Sant`Anna M. The Possible Role of Telomere Length and Chemokines in the Aging Process: A Transdiagnostic Review in Psychiatry. CURRENT PSYCHIATRY RESEARCH AND REVIEWS 2019. [DOI: 10.2174/1573400515666190719155906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:Psychiatric disorders are common, reaching a worldwide prevalence of 29.2%. They are associated with a high risk of premature death and with accelerated aging in clinical, molecular and neuroimaging studies. Recently, there is strong evidence suggesting a possible role of telomere length and chemokines in aging processes in psychiatric disorders.Objective:We aimed to review the literature on telomere length and chemokines and its association with early aging in mental illnesses on a transdiagnostic approach.Results:The review highlights the association between psychiatric disorders and early aging. Several independent studies have reported shorter telomere length and dysregulations on levels of circulating chemokines in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and anxiety disorders, suggesting a complex interaction between these markers in a transdiagnostic level. However, studies have investigated the inflammatory markers and telomere shortening separately and associated with a particular diagnosis, rather than as a transdiagnostic biological feature.Conclusion:There is consistent evidence supporting the relationship between accelerated aging, telomere length, and chemokines in mental disorders, but they have been studied individually. Thus, more research is needed to improve the knowledge of accelerated senescence and its biomarkers in psychiatry, not only individually in each diagnosis, but also based on a transdiagnostic perspective. Moreover, further research should try to elucidate how the intricate association between the chemokines and telomeres together may contribute to the aging process in psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Endler Valiati
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Henrique Hizo
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Jairo Vinícius Pinto
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Márcia Kauer-Sant`Anna
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Experimental Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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18
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Choi KM, Joo MS, Cho DH, Han HJ, Kim MS, Cho MY, Jung SH, Kim DH, Park CI. Functional analysis and gene expression profiling of extracellular cathepsin Z in red sea bream, Pagrus major. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 93:208-215. [PMID: 31306760 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cathepsin Z (CTSZ) is a lysosomal cysteine protease that is known to be involved in the maintenance of homeostasis and the biological mechanisms of immune cells. In this study, we have confirmed the tissue specific expression of the cathepsin Z (PmCTSZ) gene in Pagrus major, and confirmed its biological function after producing recombinant protein using Escherichia coli (E. coli). Multiple sequence alignment analysis revealed that the active site of the cysteine proteases and three N-glycosylation sites of the deduced protein sequence were highly conserved among all of the organisms. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that PmCTSZ was included in the clusters of CTSZ and the cysteine proteases of other bony fish and is most closely related to Japanese flounder CTSZ. PmCTSZ was distributed in all of the tissues from healthy red sea bream that were used in the experiment and was most abundantly found in the spleen and gill. Analysis of mRNA expression after bacterial (Edwardsiella piscicida: E. piscicida and Streptococcus iniae: S. iniae) or viral (red seabream iridovirus: RSIV) challenge showed significant gene expression regulation in immune-related tissues, but they maintained relatively normal levels of expression. We produced recombinant PmCTSZ (rPmCTSZ) using an E. coli expression system and confirmed the biological function of extracellular rPmCTSZ in vitro. We found that bacterial proliferation was significantly inhibited by rPmCTSZ, and the leukocytes of red sea bream also induced apoptosis and viability reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kwang-Min Choi
- Department of Marine Biology & Aquaculture, College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 455, Tongyeong, 650-160, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Soo Joo
- Department of Marine Biology & Aquaculture, College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 455, Tongyeong, 650-160, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hee Cho
- Department of Marine Biology & Aquaculture, College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 455, Tongyeong, 650-160, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Ja Han
- Pathology Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, 408-1 Sirang-ri, Gijang-up, Gijang-gun, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Myoung Sug Kim
- Pathology Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, 408-1 Sirang-ri, Gijang-up, Gijang-gun, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi Young Cho
- Pathology Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, 408-1 Sirang-ri, Gijang-up, Gijang-gun, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hee Jung
- Pathology Research Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science, 408-1 Sirang-ri, Gijang-up, Gijang-gun, Busan, 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Do-Hyung Kim
- Department of Aquatic Life Medicine, College of Fisheries Science, Pukyong National University, 45, Yongso-ro, Nam-Gu., Busan, Republic of Korea.
| | - Chan-Il Park
- Department of Marine Biology & Aquaculture, College of Marine Science, Gyeongsang National University, 455, Tongyeong, 650-160, Republic of Korea.
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19
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Ábrányi-Balogh P, Petri L, Imre T, Szijj P, Scarpino A, Hrast M, Mitrović A, Fonovič UP, Németh K, Barreteau H, Roper DI, Horváti K, Ferenczy GG, Kos J, Ilaš J, Gobec S, Keserű GM. A road map for prioritizing warheads for cysteine targeting covalent inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 160:94-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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20
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Thygesen C, Ilkjær L, Kempf SJ, Hemdrup AL, von Linstow CU, Babcock AA, Darvesh S, Larsen MR, Finsen B. Diverse Protein Profiles in CNS Myeloid Cells and CNS Tissue From Lipopolysaccharide- and Vehicle-Injected APP SWE/PS1 ΔE9 Transgenic Mice Implicate Cathepsin Z in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:397. [PMID: 30459560 PMCID: PMC6232379 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation, characterized by chronic activation of the myeloid-derived microglia, is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Systemic inflammation, typically resulting from infection, has been linked to the progression of AD due to exacerbation of the chronic microglial reaction. However, the mechanism and the consequences of this exacerbation are largely unknown. Here, we mimicked systemic inflammation in AD with weekly intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of APPSWE/PS1ΔE9 transgenic mice with E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from 9 to 12 months of age, corresponding to the period with the steepest increase in amyloid pathology. We found that the repeated LPS injections ameliorated amyloid pathology in the neocortex while increasing the neuroinflammatory reaction. To elucidate mechanisms, we analyzed the proteome of the hippocampus from the same mice as well as in unique samples of CNS myeloid cells. The repeated LPS injections stimulated protein pathways of the complement system, retinoid receptor activation and oxidative stress. CNS myeloid cells from transgenic mice showed enrichment in pathways of amyloid-beta clearance and elevated levels of the lysosomal protease cathepsin Z, as well as amyloid precursor protein, apolipoprotein E and clusterin. These proteins were found elevated in the proteome of both LPS and vehicle injected transgenics, and co-localized to CD11b+ microglia in transgenic mice and in primary murine microglia. Additionally, cathepsin Z, amyloid precursor protein, and apolipoprotein E appeared associated with amyloid plaques in neocortex of AD cases. Interestingly, cathepsin Z was expressed in microglial-like cells and co-localized to CD68+ microglial lysosomes in AD cases, and it was expressed in perivascular cells in AD and control cases. Taken together, our results implicate systemic LPS administration in ameliorating amyloid pathology in early-to-mid stage disease in the APPSWE/PS1ΔE9 mouse and attract attention to the potential disease involvement of cathepsin Z expressed in CNS myeloid cells in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Thygesen
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Brain Research - Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Laura Ilkjær
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Stefan J Kempf
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Anne Louise Hemdrup
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | | | - Alicia A Babcock
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Sultan Darvesh
- Department of Medicine (Neurology and Geriatric Medicine) - Department of Medical Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.,Department of Chemistry and Physics, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Martin R Larsen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Bente Finsen
- Department of Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Brain Research - Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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21
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Pišlar A, Tratnjek L, Glavan G, Živin M, Kos J. Upregulation of Cysteine Protease Cathepsin X in the 6-Hydroxydopamine Model of Parkinson's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:412. [PMID: 30450037 PMCID: PMC6225071 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). In vitro, a contribution to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity has been shown for the lysosomal protease cathepsin X; however, its expression and its role in PD remain unknown. Therefore, the current study was designed to address the regional, cellular, and subcellular localization and activity of cathepsin X in hemi-parkinsonian rats with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced excitotoxicity in the unilateral medial forebrain bundle (MFB) lesion. We report for the first time that cathepsin X expression and activity are rapidly increased in the ipsilateral SNc after injection of 6-OHDA into the MFB reaching a maximum after 12 h but seem to stay strongly upregulated after 4 weeks after injection. At early time points of 6-OHDA injection into the MFB, the increased cathepsin X is localized in the lysosomes in the neuronal, predominantly tyrosine hydroxylase-positive dopaminergic cells. After 12 h of 6-OHDA induced lesion, only a few activated microglial cells are positive for cathepsin X whereas, in 4 weeks post-lesion accompanied with complete loss of dopaminergic neurons, there is persistent cathepsin X upregulation restricted to activated glia cells. Taken together, our results demonstrate that cathepsin X upregulation in the lesioned dopaminergic system may play a role as a pathogenic factor in PD. Moreover, inhibition of cathepsin X expression or activity may be useful in protecting the nigrostriatal dopaminergic projection in the PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Pišlar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Larisa Tratnjek
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gordana Glavan
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Živin
- Institute of Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janko Kos
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Department of Biotechnology, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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22
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Kim GS, Ko W, Kim JW, Jeong MH, Ko SK, Hur JS, Oh H, Jang JH, Ahn JS. Bioactive α-Pyrone Derivatives from the Endolichenic Fungus Dothideomycetes sp. EL003334. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:1084-1088. [PMID: 29616812 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b01022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Two new α-pyrones, dothideopyrones E (1) and F (2), were isolated from a culture of the endolichenic fungus Dothideomycetes sp. EL003334. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis. Their absolute configurations were established by the modified Mosher's method. Compound 2 inhibited nitric oxide (NO) production with IC50 values of 15.0 ± 2.8 μM in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 cells. Compound 2 diminished the protein expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Additionally, 2 decreased the mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil Soo Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center , Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB) , Cheongju 28116 , Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience , Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejeon 34141 , Korea
| | - Wonmin Ko
- College of Pharmacy , Wonkwang University , Iksan 54538 , Korea
| | - Jong Won Kim
- Anticancer Agent Research Center , Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB) , Cheongju 28116 , Korea
| | - Min-Hye Jeong
- Korean Lichen Research Institute , Sunchon National University , Suncheon 57922 , Korea
| | - Sung-Kyun Ko
- Anticancer Agent Research Center , Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB) , Cheongju 28116 , Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience , Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejeon 34141 , Korea
| | - Jae-Seoun Hur
- Korean Lichen Research Institute , Sunchon National University , Suncheon 57922 , Korea
| | - Hyuncheol Oh
- College of Pharmacy , Wonkwang University , Iksan 54538 , Korea
| | - Jae-Hyuk Jang
- Anticancer Agent Research Center , Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB) , Cheongju 28116 , Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience , Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejeon 34141 , Korea
| | - Jong Seog Ahn
- Anticancer Agent Research Center , Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB) , Cheongju 28116 , Korea
- Department of Biomolecular Science, KRIBB School of Bioscience , Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) , Daejeon 34141 , Korea
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23
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Zhanaeva SY, Rogozhnikova AA, Alperina EL, Gevorgyan MM, Idov GV. Changes in Activity of Cysteine Cathepsins B and L in Brain Structures of Mice with Aggressive and Depressive-Like Behavior Formed under Conditions of Social Stress. Bull Exp Biol Med 2018; 164:425-429. [PMID: 29500808 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-018-4004-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We studied activity of lysosomal cysteine proteases, cathepsins B and L, in brain structures (frontal cortex, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, and hypothalamus) of C57Bl/6J mice with aggressive and depressive-like behavior formed under conditions of chronic social stress (repeated experience of victories and defeats within 20 days). Mice with depressive-like behavior showed increased activity of cathepsin В in the hypothalamus and nucleus caudatus and increased activity of cathepsin L in the hippocampus compared to control animals not subjected to agonistic confrontations. In mice with aggressive behavior, protease activity in the studied brain structures was not changed. In 4 h after immune system activation with LPS (250 μg/kg), cathepsin L activity in the hippocampus of control mice increased in comparison with mice receiving saline. In contrast to control animals, LPS caused a decrease in activity of the enzyme in the caudate nucleus and frontal cortex of aggressive mice and in the hippocampus of mice with depressive-like behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ya Zhanaeva
- Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia.
| | - A A Rogozhnikova
- Novosibirsk National Research State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - E L Alperina
- Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - M M Gevorgyan
- Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - G V Idov
- Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia.,Novosibirsk National Research State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
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24
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Haque A, Polcyn R, Matzelle D, Banik NL. New Insights into the Role of Neuron-Specific Enolase in Neuro-Inflammation, Neurodegeneration, and Neuroprotection. Brain Sci 2018; 8:E33. [PMID: 29463007 PMCID: PMC5836052 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8020033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration is a complex process that leads to irreversible neuronal damage and death in spinal cord injury (SCI) and various neurodegenerative diseases, which are serious, debilitating conditions. Despite exhaustive research, the cause of neuronal damage in these degenerative disorders is not completely understood. Elevation of cell surface α-enolase activates various inflammatory pathways, including the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and some growth factors that are detrimental to neuronal cells. While α-enolase is present in all neurological tissues, it can also be converted to neuron specific enolase (NSE). NSE is a glycolytic enzyme found in neuronal and neuroendocrine tissues that may play a dual role in promoting both neuroinflammation and neuroprotection in SCI and other neurodegenerative events. Elevated NSE can promote ECM degradation, inflammatory glial cell proliferation, and actin remodeling, thereby affecting migration of activated macrophages and microglia to the injury site and promoting neuronal cell death. Thus, NSE could be a reliable, quantitative, and specific marker of neuronal injury. Depending on the injury, disease, and microenvironment, NSE may also show neurotrophic function as it controls neuronal survival, differentiation, and neurite regeneration via activation of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. This review discusses possible implications of NSE expression and activity in neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and neuroprotection in SCI and various neurodegenerative diseases for prognostic and therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azizul Haque
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
| | - Rachel Polcyn
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
| | - Denise Matzelle
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
| | - Naren L Banik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
- Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, USA.
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25
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Hsiao G, Chi WC, Pang KL, Chen JJ, Kuo YH, Wang YK, Cha HJ, Chou SC, Lee TH. Hirsutane-Type Sesquiterpenes with Inhibitory Activity of Microglial Nitric Oxide Production from the Red Alga-Derived Fungus Chondrostereum sp. NTOU4196. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2017; 80:1615-1622. [PMID: 28514148 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.7b00196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The marine red alga Pterocladiella capillacea is an economic alga for the food industry in Taiwan, and its associated highly diversified fungi have not been investigated meticulously thus far. The EtOAc extract of the fermented broth of Chondrostereum sp. NTOU4196, a fungal strain isolated from P. capillacea, was found to exhibit significant nitric oxide (NO) production inhibitory activity in lipopolysaccharide-activated murine RAW 264.7 cells at a concentration of 100 μg/mL in the preliminary screening. Therefore, separation of the active principles from the fermented broths was performed, and that has led to the isolation of eight new 5,5,5-tricyclic hirsutane-type sesquiterpenes, namely, chondroterpenes A-H (1-8), together with seven known analogues. They were identified by analyses of spectroscopic data and comparison with literature values. Among the new isolates, chondroterpene A (1) exhibited more significant NO production inhibitory activity in murine BV-2 microglial cells, and of all the isolated compounds, hirsutanol A (9) exerted limited cytotoxic effects and the most potent inhibitory activity on NO production.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Hsiao
- Graduate Institute of Medical Science and Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University , Taipei 11031, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chiung Chi
- Department of Food Science, National Quemoy University , Kinmen 89250, Taiwan
- Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University , Keelung 20224, Taiwan
| | - Ka-Lai Pang
- Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University , Keelung 20224, Taiwan
| | - Jih-Jung Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, National Yang-Ming University , Taipei 11221, Taiwan
| | - Yueh-Hsiung Kuo
- Department of Biotechnology, Asia University , Taichung 41354, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Kai Wang
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hyo-Jung Cha
- Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University , Keelung 20224, Taiwan
| | | | - Tzong-Huei Lee
- Institute of Fisheries Science, National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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