Chloride cotransporter KCC2 is essential for GABAergic inhibition in the SCN

Unraveling the socio-cognitive consequences of KCC2 disruption in zebrafish: implications for neurodevelopmental disorders and therapeutic interventions

During postnatal brain development, maintaining a delicate balance between excitation and inhibition (E/I) is essential for the precise formation of neuronal circuits. The K+/cl- cotransporter 2 (KCC2) is instrumental in this process, and its dysregulation is implicated in various neurological disorders. This study utilized zebrafish (Danio rerio) to investigate the socio-cognitive consequences of KCC2 disruption. Through CRISPR-Cas9 technology, biallelic kcc2a knockout zebrafish larvae were generated, revealing behavioral abnormalities, including impaired social interactions and memory deficits. Molecular analyses unveiled alterations in key genes associated with the GABAergic and glutamatergic systems, potentially contributing to E/I imbalance. Additionally, KCC2 disruption influenced the expression of oxytocin and BDNF, crucial regulators of social behaviors, synaptic plasticity, and memory formation. The study also explored the therapeutic potential of KCC2 modulation using pharmaceuticals, showing the rescuing effects of CLP-290 and LIT-001 on social abnormalities. However, the selective impact of LIT-001 on social behaviors, not memory, highlights the complexity of neurobehavioral modulation. In summary, this study sheds light on the pivotal role of KCC2 in shaping socio-cognitive functions and suggests potential therapeutic avenues for KCC2-related neurological disorders.

One seasonal clock fits all?

Adaptation of physiology and behavior to seasonal changes in the environment are for many organisms essential for survival. Most of our knowledge about the underlying mechanisms comes from research on photoperiodic regulation of reproduction in plants, insects and mammals. However, even humans, who mostly live in environments with minimal seasonal influences, show annual rhythms in physiology (e.g., immune activity, brain function), behavior (e.g., sleep-wake cycles) and disease prevalence (e.g., infectious diseases). As seasonal variations in environmental conditions may be drastically altered due to climate change, the understanding of the mechanisms underlying seasonal adaptation of physiology and behavior becomes even more relevant. While many species have developed specific solutions for dedicated tasks of photoperiodic regulation, we find a number of common principles and mechanisms when comparing insect and mammalian systems: (1) the circadian system contributes to photoperiodic regulation; (2) similar signaling molecules (VIP and PDF) are used for transferring information from the circadian system to the neuroendocrine system controlling the photoperiodic response; (3) the hormone melatonin participates in seasonal adaptation in insects as well as mammals; and (4) changes in photoperiod affect neurotransmitter function in both animal groups. The few examples of overlap elaborated in this perspective article, as well as the discussion on relevance for humans, should be seen as encouragement to unravel the machinery of seasonal adaptation in a multitude of organisms.

The homeostatic effects of the RE-1 silencing transcription factor on cortical networks are altered under ictogenic conditions in the mouse

AIM

The Repressor Element-1 Silencing Transcription Factor (REST) is an epigenetic master regulator playing a crucial role in the nervous system. In early developmental stages, REST downregulation promotes neuronal differentiation and the acquisition of the neuronal phenotype. In addition, postnatal fluctuations in REST expression contribute to shaping neuronal networks and maintaining network homeostasis. Here we investigate the role of the early postnatal deletion of neuronal REST in the assembly and strength of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic connections.

METHODS

We investigated excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission by patch-clamp recordings in acute neocortical slices in a conditional knockout mouse model (RestGTi) in which Rest was deleted by delivering PHP.eB adeno-associated viruses encoding CRE recombinase under the control of the human synapsin I promoter in the lateral ventricles of P0-P1 pups.

RESULTS

We show that, under physiological conditions, Rest deletion increased the intrinsic excitability of principal cortical neurons in the primary visual cortex and the density and strength of excitatory synaptic connections impinging on them, without affecting inhibitory transmission. Conversely, in the presence of a pathological excitation/inhibition imbalance induced by pentylenetetrazol, Rest deletion prevented the increase in synaptic excitation and decreased seizure severity.

CONCLUSION

The data indicate that REST exerts distinct effects on the excitability of cortical circuits depending on whether it acts under physiological conditions or in the presence of pathologic network hyperexcitability. In the former case, REST preserves a correct excitatory/inhibitory balance in cortical circuits, while in the latter REST loses its homeostatic activity and may become pro-epileptogenic.

Participation of calcium-permeable AMPA receptors in the regulation of epileptiform activity of hippocampal neurons

Introduction

Epileptiform activity is the most striking result of hyperexcitation of a group of neurons that can occur in different brain regions and then spread to other sites. Later it was shown that these rhythms have a cellular correlate in vitro called paroxysmal depolarization shift (PDS). In 13-15 DIV neuron-glial cell culture, inhibition of the GABA(A) receptors induces bursts of action potential in the form of clasters PDS and oscillations of intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). We demonstrate that GABAergic neurons expressing calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) as well as Kv7-type potassium channels regulate hippocampal glutamatergic neurons' excitability during epileptiform activity in culture.

Methods

A combination of whole-cell patch-clamp in current clamp mode and calcium imaging microscopy was used to simultaneously register membrane potential and [Ca2+]i level. To identify GABAergic cell cultures were fixed and stained with antibodies against glutamate decarboxylase GAD 65/67 and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) after vital [Ca2+]i imaging.

Results and discussion

It was shown that CP-AMPARs are involved in the regulation of the PDS clusters and [Ca2+]i pulses accompanied them. Activation of CP-AMPARs of GABAergic neurons is thought to cause the release of GABA, which activates the GABA(B) receptors of other GABAergic interneurons. It is assumed that activation of these GABA(B) receptors leads to the release of beta-gamma subunits of Gi protein, which activate potassium channels, resulting in hyperpolarization and inhibition of these interneurons. The latter causes disinhibition of glutamatergic neurons, the targets of these interneurons. In turn, the CP-AMPAR antagonist, NASPM, has the opposite effect. Measurement of membrane potential in GABAergic neurons by the patch-clamp method in whole-cell configuration demonstrated that NASPM suppresses hyperpolarization in clusters and individual PDSs. It is believed that Kv7-type potassium channels are involved in the control of hyperpolarization during epileptiform activity. The blocker of Kv7 channels, XE 991, mimicked the effect of the CP-AMPARs antagonist on PDS clusters. Both drugs increased the duration of the PDS cluster. In turn, the Kv7 activator, retigabine, decreased the duration of the PDS cluster and Ca2+ pulse. In addition, retigabine led to deep posthyperpolarization at the end of the PDS cluster. The Kv7 channel is believed to be involved in the formation of PDS, as the channel blocker reduced the rate of hyperpolarization in the PDS almost three times. Thus, GABAergic neurons expressing CP-AMPARs, regulate the membrane potential of innervated glutamatergic neurons by modulating the activity of postsynaptic potassium channels of other GABAergic neurons.

Ion dynamics and the regulation of circadian cellular physiology

Circadian rhythms in physiology and behavior allow organisms to anticipate the daily environmental changes imposed by the rotation of our planet around its axis. Although these rhythms eventually manifest at the organismal level, a cellular basis for circadian rhythms has been demonstrated. Significant contributors to these cell-autonomous rhythms are daily cycles in gene expression and protein translation. However, recent data revealed cellular rhythms in other biological processes, including ionic currents, ion transport, and cytosolic ion abundance. Circadian rhythms in ion currents sustain circadian variation in action potential firing rate, which coordinates neuronal behavior and activity. Circadian regulation of metal ions abundance and dynamics is implicated in distinct cellular processes, from protein translation to membrane activity and osmotic homeostasis. In turn, studies showed that manipulating ion abundance affects the expression of core clock genes and proteins, suggestive of a close interplay. However, the relationship between gene expression cycles, ion dynamics, and cellular function is still poorly characterized. In this review, I will discuss the mechanisms that generate ion rhythms, the cellular functions they govern, and how they feed back to regulate the core clock machinery.

The role of KCC2 and NKCC1 in spinal cord injury: From physiology to pathology

The balance of ion concentrations inside and outside the cell is an essential homeostatic mechanism in neurons and serves as the basis for a variety of physiological activities. In the central nervous system, NKCC1 and KCC2, members of the SLC12 cation-chloride co-transporter (CCC) family, participate in physiological and pathophysiological processes by regulating intracellular and extracellular chloride ion concentrations, which can further regulate the GABAergic system. Over recent years, studies have shown that NKCC1 and KCC2 are essential for the maintenance of Cl^- homeostasis in neural cells. NKCC1 transports Cl^- into cells while KCC2 transports Cl^- out of cells, thereby regulating chloride balance and neuronal excitability. An imbalance of NKCC1 and KCC2 after spinal cord injury will disrupt CI^- homeostasis, resulting in the transformation of GABA neurons from an inhibitory state into an excitatory state, which subsequently alters the spinal cord neural network and leads to conditions such as spasticity and neuropathic pain, among others. Meanwhile, studies have shown that KCC2 is also an essential target for motor function reconstruction after spinal cord injury. This review mainly introduces the physiological structure and function of NKCC1 and KCC2 and discusses their pathophysiological roles after spinal cord injury.

Time-restricted feeding entrains long-term behavioral changes through the IGF2-KCC2 pathway

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) integrates light and systemic signals from peripheral tissues to coordinate physiology and behavior daily rhythms. However, the contribution that nutrients and feeding patterns provide to the SCN network regulation remains controversial. Here, we found that time-restricted feeding (TRF) in ZT0-4 (Zeitgeber Time) generates a robust and long-term shift in locomotor behavior and increased wakefulness. Intracellular Ca²⁺ signals in SCN GABAergic neurons of freely moving mice showed significant activation after ZT0-4 TRF treatment. Furthermore, RNA-seq profiling of SCN showed that TRF during ZT0-4 increased Insulin-like Growth Factor 2 (Igf2) expression and dysregulated ion transporters, including the downregulation of Kcc2. SCN neuron-specific loss of function of Kcc2 amplified ZT0-4 TRF induced aftereffect. Moreover, overexpression of IGF2 in SCN GABAergic neurons extended the locomotion range, mirroring the TRF aftereffect. In summary, our study showed that the IGF2-KCC2 pathway plays an important role for TRF induced behavior changes.

Long-Term Imaging Reveals a Circadian Rhythm of Intracellular Chloride in Neurons of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Both inhibitory and excitatory GABA transmission exist in the mature suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the master pacemaker of circadian physiology. Whether GABA is inhibitory or excitatory depends on the intracellular chloride concentration ([Cl-]i). Here, using the genetically encoded ratiometric probe Cl-Sensor, we investigated [Cl-]i in AVP and VIP-expressing SCN neurons for several days in culture. The chloride ratio (RCl) demonstrated circadian rhythmicity in AVP + neurons and VIP + neurons, but was not detected in GFAP + astrocytes. RCl peaked between ZT 7 and ZT 8 in both AVP + and VIP + neurons. RCl rhythmicity was not dependent on the activity of several transmembrane chloride carriers, action potential generation, or the L-type voltage-gated calcium channels, but was sensitive to GABA antagonists. We conclude that [Cl-]i is under circadian regulation in both AVP + and VIP + neurons.

Properties of GABAergic Neurons Containing Calcium-Permeable Kainate and AMPA-Receptors

Calcium-permeable kainate and AMPA receptors (CP-KARs and CP-AMPARs), as well as NMDARs, play a pivotal role in plasticity and in regulating neurotransmitter release. Here we visualized in the mature hippocampal neuroglial cultures the neurons expressing CP-AMPARs and CP-KARs. These neurons were visualized by a characteristic fast sustained [Ca²⁺]_i increase in response to the agonist of these receptors, domoic acid (DoA), and a selective agonist of GluK1-containing KARs, ATPA. Neurons from both subpopulations are GABAergic. The subpopulation of neurons expressing CP-AMPARs includes a larger percentage of calbindin-positive neurons (39.4 ± 6.0%) than the subpopulation of neurons expressing CP-KARs (14.2 ± 7.5% of CB⁺ neurons). In addition, we have shown for the first time that NH₄Cl-induced depolarization faster induces an [Ca²⁺]_i elevation in GABAergic neurons expressing CP-KARs and CP-AMPARs than in most glutamatergic neurons. CP-AMPARs antagonist, NASPM, increased the amplitude of the DoA-induced Ca²⁺ response in GABAergic neurons expressing CP-KARs, indicating that neurons expressing CP-AMPARs innervate GABAergic neurons expressing CP-KARs. We assume that CP-KARs in inhibitory neurons are involved in the mechanism of outstripping GABA release upon hyperexcitation.

Decreased spasticity of Baishaoluoshi Decoction through the BDNF/TrKB-KCC2 pathway on poststroke spasticity rats

OBJECTIVE

K+-Cl- cotransporter-2 (KCC2), which primarily extrudes chloride in mature neurons, triggers hemiplegia limb spasticity after ischemic stroke by affecting neuronal excitability. Our previous study revealed that the Chinese herb Baishaoluoshi Decoction decreases hemiplegia limb spasticity in poststroke spasticity (PSS) patients. This study aimed at elucidating on the effects of Baishaoluoshi Decoction on the BDNF/TrKB-KCC2 pathway in PSS rat models.

METHODS

Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was adopted for the establishment of PSS rat models. Muscle tension was evaluated by Modified Ashworth Scale. Nissl staining and transmission electron microscopy were used to measure the protective effects of Baishaoluoshi Decoction on ischemic injury-induced neuronal damage due to MCAO. Expression levels of BDNF, TrKB, and KCC2 in brain tissues around the infarct and brainstem were detected by immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

It was found that Baishaoluoshi Decoction suppressed hemiplegia limb spasticity and alleviated the damage in neurons and synapses in PSS rat models. Importantly, the expression of BDNF, TrKB, and KCC2 in brain tissues around the infarct and brainstem were significantly upregulated after treatment with low-dose and high-dose Baishaoluoshi Decoction.

CONCLUSION

Suppression of spasticity by Baishaoluoshi Decoction in PSS rat models may be correlated with upregulated BDNF/TrKB-KCC2 pathway, which may be a complementary therapeutic strategy for PSS.

Role of the cation-chloride-cotransporters in the circadian system

The circadian system plays an immense role in controlling physiological processes in our body. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) supervises this system, regulating and harmonising the circadian rhythms in our body. Most neurons present in the SCN are GABAergic neurons. Although GABA is considered the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS, recent studies have shown that excitatory responses were recorded in this area. These responses are enabled by an increase in intracellular chloride ions [Cl^-]_i levels. The chloride (Cl^-) levels in GABAergic neurons are controlled by two solute carrier 12 (SLC12) cation-chloride-cotransporters (CCCs): Na⁺/K⁺/Cl^- co-transporter (NKCC1) and K⁺/Cl^- co-transporter (KCC2), that respectively cause an influx and efflux of Cl^-. Recent works have found altered expression and/or activity of either of these co-transporters in SCN neurons and have been associated with circadian rhythms. In this review, we summarize and discuss the role of CCCs in circadian rhythms, and highlight these recent advances which attest to CCC's growing potential as strong research and therapeutic targets.

Anti-spastic effect induced by waggle needling correlates with KCC2-GABAA pathway in post-stroke spasticity rats

Although clinical efficacy of waggle needling has been confirmed, therapeutic mechanisms still remain poorly understood. Reduction of GABA was involved in the etiology of spasticity. Recently, accumulated evidences suggest that the inhibitory effect of GABA is determined by low intracellular chloride concentration, which is predominantly mediated by KCC2. This study was designed to investigate whether KCC2-GABAA pathway was involved in the mechanism underlying acupuncture intervention in rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Three days after modeling, the rats received waggle needling, routine needling and placebo needling for 7 consecutive days. After treatment, the muscle spasticity, motor function and infarct volumes were tested. KCC2 and GABAAγ2 levels were detected via western blotting, RT-PCR and immunofluorescence. KCC2 antagonist and agonist were administered after the last intervention. We found that acupuncture, particularly waggle needling, could remarkably alleviate muscle spasticity, reverse motor deficits and reduce cerebral infraction in MCAO rats, possibly due to its effects on up-regulating expressions of KCC2 and GABAAγ2 in the cortical infarct regions. However, the effects were blocked by KCC2 antagonist. In summary, this study suggests that improvements in muscle spasticity and motor function induced by waggle needling correlates with the activation of KCC2-GABAA pathway.

Resilience in the suprachiasmatic nucleus: Implications for aging and Alzheimer's disease

Many believe that the circadian impairments associated with aging and Alzheimer's disease are, simply enough, a byproduct of tissue degeneration within the central pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). However, the findings that have accumulated to date examining the SCNs obtained postmortem from the brains of older individuals, or those diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease upon autopsy, suggest only limited atrophy. We review this literature as well as a complementary one concerning fetal-donor SCN transplant, which established that many circadian timekeeping functions can be maintained with rudimentary (structurally limited) representations of the SCN. Together, these corpora of data suggest that the SCN is a resilient brain region that cannot be directly (or solely) implicated in the behavioral manifestations of circadian disorganization often witnessed during aging as well as early and late progression of Alzheimer's disease. We complete our review by suggesting future directions of research that may bridge this conceptual divide and briefly discuss the implications of it for improving health outcomes in later adulthood.

The Therapeutic Potential of Neuronal K-Cl Co-Transporter KCC2 in Huntington's Disease and Its Comorbidities

Intracellular chloride levels in the brain are regulated primarily through the opposing effects of two cation-chloride co-transporters (CCCs), namely K+-Cl- co-transporter-2 (KCC2) and Na+-K+-Cl- co-transporter-1 (NKCC1). These CCCs are differentially expressed throughout the course of development, thereby determining the excitatory-to-inhibitory γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) switch. GABAergic excitation (depolarisation) is important in controlling the healthy development of the nervous system; as the brain matures, GABAergic inhibition (hyperpolarisation) prevails. This developmental switch in excitability is important, as uncontrolled regulation of neuronal excitability can have implications for health. Huntington's disease (HD) is an example of a genetic disorder whereby the expression levels of KCC2 are abnormal due to mutant protein interactions. Although HD is primarily considered a motor disease, many other clinical manifestations exist; these often present in advance of any movement abnormalities. Cognitive change, in addition to sleep disorders, is prevalent in the HD population; the effect of uncontrolled KCC2 function on cognition and sleep has also been explored. Several mechanisms by which KCC2 expression is reduced have been proposed recently, thereby suggesting extensive investigation of KCC2 as a possible therapeutic target for the development of pharmacological compounds that can effectively treat HD co-morbidities. Hence, this review summarizes the role of KCC2 in the healthy and HD brain, and highlights recent advances that attest to KCC2 as a strong research and therapeutic target candidate.

The etiological contribution of GABAergic plasticity to the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain developing after peripheral or central nerve injury is the result of pathological changes generated through complex mechanisms. Disruption in the homeostasis of excitatory and inhibitory neurons within the central nervous system is a crucial factor in the formation of hyperalgesia or allodynia occurring with neuropathic pain. The central GABAergic pathway has received attention for its extensive distribution and function in neural circuits, including the generation and development of neuropathic pain. GABAergic inhibitory changes that occur in the interneurons along descending modulatory and nociceptive pathways in the central nervous system are believed to generate neuronal plasticity, such as synaptic plasticity or functional plasticity of the related genes or proteins, that is the foundation of persistent neuropathic pain. The primary GABAergic plasticity observed in neuropathic pain includes GABAergic synapse homo- and heterosynaptic plasticity, decreased synthesis of GABA, down-expression of glutamic acid decarboxylase and GABA transporter, abnormal expression of NKCC1 or KCC2, and disturbed function of GABA receptors. In this review, we describe possible mechanisms associated with GABAergic plasticity, such as central sensitization and GABAergic interneuron apoptosis, and the epigenetic etiologies of GABAergic plasticity in neuropathic pain. Moreover, we summarize potential therapeutic targets of GABAergic plasticity that may allow for successful relief of hyperalgesia from nerve injury. Finally, we compare the effects of the GABAergic system in neuropathic pain to other types of chronic pain to understand the contribution of GABAergic plasticity to neuropathic pain.

Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neurons Are Functionally Mature In Vitro and Integrate into the Mouse Striatum Following Transplantation

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are a powerful tool for modelling human development. In recent years, hPSCs have become central in cell-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases given their potential to replace affected neurons. However, directing hPSCs into specific neuronal types is complex and requires an accurate protocol that mimics endogenous neuronal development. Here we describe step-by-step a fast feeder-free neuronal differentiation protocol to direct hPSCs to mature forebrain neurons in 37 days in vitro (DIV). The protocol is based upon a combination of specific morphogens, trophic and growth factors, ions, neurotransmitters and extracellular matrix elements. A human-induced PSC line (Ctr-Q33) and a human embryonic stem cell line (GEN-Q18) were used to reinforce the potential of the protocol. Neuronal activity was analysed by single-cell calcium imaging. At 8 DIV, we obtained a homogeneous population of hPSC-derived neuroectodermal progenitors which self-arranged in bi-dimensional neural tube-like structures. At 16 DIV, we generated hPSC-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) with mostly a subpallial identity along with a subpopulation of pallial NPCs. Terminal in vitro neuronal differentiation was confirmed by the expression of microtubule associated protein 2b (Map 2b) by almost 100% of hPSC-derived neurons and the expression of specific-striatal neuronal markers including GABA, CTIP2 and DARPP-32. HPSC-derived neurons showed mature and functional phenotypes as they expressed synaptic markers, voltage-gated ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors. Neurons displayed diverse spontaneous activity patterns that were classified into three major groups, namely “high”, “intermediate” and “low” firing neurons. Finally, transplantation experiments showed that the NPCs survived and differentiated within mouse striatum for at least 3 months. NPCs integrated host environmental cues and differentiated into striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), which successfully integrated into the endogenous circuitry without teratoma formation. Altogether, these findings demonstrate the potential of this robust human neuronal differentiation protocol, which will bring new opportunities for the study of human neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration, and will open new avenues in cell-based therapies, pharmacological studies and alternative in vitro toxicology.

Ion Channels Controlling Circadian Rhythms in Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Excitability

Animals synchronize to the environmental day-night cycle by means of an internal circadian clock in the brain. In mammals, this timekeeping mechanism is housed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus and is entrained by light input from the retina. One output of the SCN is a neural code for circadian time, which arises from the collective activity of neurons within the SCN circuit and comprises two fundamental components: 1) periodic alterations in the spontaneous excitability of individual neurons that result in higher firing rates during the day and lower firing rates at night, and 2) synchronization of these cellular oscillations throughout the SCN. In this review, we summarize current evidence for the identity of ion channels in SCN neurons and the mechanisms by which they set the rhythmic parameters of the time code. During the day, voltage-dependent and independent Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ currents, as well as several K⁺ currents, contribute to increased membrane excitability and therefore higher firing frequency. At night, an increase in different K⁺ currents, including Ca²⁺-activated BK currents, contribute to membrane hyperpolarization and decreased firing. Layered on top of these intrinsically regulated changes in membrane excitability, more than a dozen neuromodulators influence action potential activity and rhythmicity in SCN neurons, facilitating both synchronization and plasticity of the neural code.

Two-Community Noisy Kuramoto Model Suggests Mechanism for Splitting in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Recent mathematical results for the noisy Kuramoto model on a 2-community network may explain some phenomena observed in the functioning of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Specifically, these findings might explain the types of transitions to a state of the SCN in which 2 components are dissociated in phase, for example, in phase splitting. In contrast to previous studies, which required additional time-delayed coupling or large variation in the coupling strengths and other variations in the 2-community model to exhibit the phase-split state, this model requires only the 2-community structure of the SCN to be present. Our model shows that a change in the communication strengths within and between the communities due to external conditions, which changes the excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance of the SCN, may result in the SCN entering an unstable state. With this altered E/I balance, the SCN would try to find a new stable state, which might in some circumstances be the split state. This shows that the 2-community noisy Kuramoto model can help understand the mechanisms of the SCN and explain differences in behavior based on actual E/I balance.

A Symphony of Signals: Intercellular and Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms Underlying Circadian Timekeeping in Mice and Flies

The central pacemakers of circadian timekeeping systems are highly robust yet adaptable, providing the temporal coordination of rhythms in behavior and physiological processes in accordance with the demands imposed by environmental cycles. These features of the central pacemaker are achieved by a multi-oscillator network in which individual cellular oscillators are tightly coupled to the environmental day-night cycle, and to one another via intercellular coupling. In this review, we will summarize the roles of various neurotransmitters and neuropeptides in the regulation of circadian entrainment and synchrony within the mammalian and Drosophila central pacemakers. We will also describe the diverse functions of protein kinases in the relay of input signals to the core oscillator or the direct regulation of the molecular clock machinery.

Modulation of NMDA-Mediated Clock Resetting in the Suprachiasmatic Nuclei of mPer2 Luc Mouse by Endocannabinoids

Light entrains the master circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) predominantly through glutamatergic signaling via NMDA receptors. The magnitude and the direction of resulting phase shifts depend on timing of the photic stimulus. Previous reports based on behavioral and electrophysiological data suggested that endocannabinoids (EC) might reduce the ability of the SCN clock to respond to light. However, there is little direct evidence for the involvement of EC in entrainment of the rhythmic clock gene expression in the SCN. We have used luminescence recording of cultured SCN slices from mPer2^Luc mice to construct a complete phase response curve (PRC) for NMDA receptor activation. The results demonstrated that NMDA administration phase-shifts the PER2 rhythm in a time-specific manner. A stable “singularity,” in the course of which the clock seemingly stops while the overall phase is caught between delays and advances, can occur in response to NMDA at a narrow interval during the PER2 level decrease. NMDA-induced phase delays were affected neither by the agonist (WIN 55,212-2 mesylate) nor by the antagonist (rimonabant hydrochloride) of EC receptors. However, the agonist significantly reduced the NMDA-induced phase advance of the clock, while the antagonist enhanced the phase advance, causing a shift in the sensitivity window of the SCN to NMDA. The modulation of EC signaling in the SCN had no effect by itself on the phase of the PER2 rhythm. The results provide evidence for a modulatory role of EC in photic entrainment of the circadian clock in the SCN.