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Roberts SGB, Dunbar RIM, Roberts AI. Communicative roots of complex sociality and cognition: preface to the theme issue. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20220115. [PMID: 35934965 PMCID: PMC9358313 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Primates live in stable social groups in which they form differentiated relationships with group members and use a range of communication including facial expressions, vocalizations and gestures. However, how these different types of communication are used to regulate social interactions, and what cognitive skills underpin this communication, is still unclear. The aim of this special issue is to examine the types of cognitive skills underpinning the flexible and complex communication that is used to maintain the bonded social relationships found in primates and humans. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cognition, communication and social bonds in primates'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam G. B. Roberts
- School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| | - Robin I. M. Dunbar
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX2 6GG, UK
| | - Anna I. Roberts
- Institute of Human Biology and Evolution, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
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2
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Addabbo M, Turati C. Binding actions and emotions in the infant's brain. Soc Neurosci 2020; 15:470-476. [PMID: 32321361 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2020.1760130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The first year represents an exceptional time of development during which important social skills emerge, like action and emotion understanding. However, to date, no study explored the neural underpinnings of infants' ability to bind emotion- to action-related information. To assess this issue, we measured EEG activity while 6-month-old infants observed the same action performed by an actress displaying three different emotional expressions (happiness, anger and neutral). Results have shown that actions embedded in an emotional context (happiness and anger) elicited larger early negativity at parieto-occipital sites compared to a neutral context. This finding suggests that already at 6 months of age, infants use information coming from facial expressions to detect the saliency and relevance of others' actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret Addabbo
- Department of Psychology, UBinding Actions and Emotions in the Infantniversity of Milan-Bicocca , Milano, Italy.,NeuroMi, Milan Center for Neuroscience , Milano, Italy
| | - Chiara Turati
- Department of Psychology, UBinding Actions and Emotions in the Infantniversity of Milan-Bicocca , Milano, Italy.,NeuroMi, Milan Center for Neuroscience , Milano, Italy
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Strachan JWA, Sebanz N, Knoblich G. The role of emotion in the dyad inversion effect. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219185. [PMID: 31265483 PMCID: PMC6605658 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
When observing two individuals, people are faster and better able to identify them as other people if they are facing each other than if they are facing away from each other. This advantage disappears when the images are inverted, suggesting that the visual system is particularly sensitive to dyads in this upright configuration, and perceptually groups socially engaged dyads into a single holistic unit. This dyadic inversion effect was obtained with images of full bodies. Body information was sufficient to elicit this effect even when information about head orientation was absent. However, it has not been tested whether the dyadic inversion effect occurs with face images and whether the emotions displayed by the faces modulate the effect. In three experiments we obtained robust dyadic inversion with face images. Holistic processing of upright face pairs occurred for neutral, happy, and sad faces but not for angry and fearful face pairs. Thus, perceptual grouping of individuals into pairs appears to depend on the emotional expressions of individual faces and the interpersonal relations they imply.
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Hashiya K, Meng X, Uto Y, Tajiri K. Overt congruent facial reaction to dynamic emotional expressions in 9–10-month-old infants. Infant Behav Dev 2019; 54:48-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Sojka P, Bareš M, Kašpárek T, Světlák M. Processing of Emotion in Functional Neurological Disorder. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:479. [PMID: 30344497 PMCID: PMC6182079 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Emotions have traditionally been considered crucial in the development of functional neurological disorder, but the evidence underpinning this association is not clear. We aimed to summarize evidence for association between functional neurological disorder and emotions as formulated by Breuer and Freud in their conception of hysterical conversion. Based on a systematic literature search, we identified 34 controlled studies and categorized them into four groups: (i) autonomic arousal, (ii) emotion-motion interactions, (iii) social modulation of symptoms, and (iv) bodily awareness in FND. We found evidence for autonomic dysregulation in FND; convergent neuroimaging findings implicate abnormal limbic-motor interactions in response to emotional stimuli in FND. Our results do not provide enough empirical evidence for social modulation of the symptoms, but there is a clinical support for the role of suggestion and placebo in FND. Our results provide evidence for abnormal bodily awareness in FND. Based on these findings, we propose that functional neurological symptoms are forms of emotional reactions shaped into symptoms by previous experience with illness and possibly reinforced by actual social contexts. Additional research should investigate the effect of social context on the intensity of functional neurological symptoms and associated brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Sojka
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and St Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
| | - Martin Bareš
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and St Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
| | - Tomáš Kašpárek
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and St Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
| | - Miroslav Světlák
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and St Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
- Department of Psychology and Psychosomatics, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University and University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czechia
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Kaiser J, Crespo-Llado MM, Turati C, Geangu E. The development of spontaneous facial responses to others' emotions in infancy: An EMG study. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17500. [PMID: 29235500 PMCID: PMC5727508 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17556-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Viewing facial expressions often evokes facial responses in the observer. These spontaneous facial reactions (SFRs) are believed to play an important role for social interactions. However, their developmental trajectory and the underlying neurocognitive mechanisms are still little understood. In the current study, 4- and 7-month old infants were presented with facial expressions of happiness, anger, and fear. Electromyography (EMG) was used to measure activation in muscles relevant for forming these expressions: zygomaticus major (smiling), corrugator supercilii (frowning), and frontalis (forehead raising). The results indicated no selective activation of the facial muscles for the expressions in 4-month-old infants. For 7-month-old infants, evidence for selective facial reactions was found especially for happy (leading to increased zygomaticus major activation) and fearful faces (leading to increased frontalis activation), while angry faces did not show a clear differential response. These results suggest that emotional SFRs may be the result of complex neurocognitive mechanisms which lead to partial mimicry but are also likely to be influenced by evaluative processes. Such mechanisms seem to undergo important developments at least until the second half of the first year of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Kaiser
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitaet Muenchen, Muenchen, Germany
| | | | - Chiara Turati
- Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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Brain activation in response to overt and covert fear and happy faces in women with borderline personality disorder. Brain Imaging Behav 2017; 10:319-31. [PMID: 26007149 DOI: 10.1007/s11682-015-9406-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a serious condition involving emotion dysregulation. Past research has identified BPD-associated differences within fronto-limbic circuitry during conditions of processing negative emotion. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigms that incorporate overt and covert (masked) presentations of emotional stimuli can provide complementary information about neural systems underlying emotion processing (e.g., both slow [overt] and fast [covert; automatic] processing pathways). This study examined brain activation during processing of overt and covert presentations of emotional faces in 12 women with BPD and 12 age-matched healthy controls. To assess a range of emotional valence and arousal, we examined responses to fear, happy and neutral expressions. All participants underwent an fMRI scanning session in which participants passively viewed emotional faces. Scanning sessions consisted of 5 runs including: (1) Overt Fear (OF) versus Neutral (N), (2) Covert Fear (CF) versus Covert Neutral (CN), (3) Overt Happy (OH) versus N, (4) Covert Happy (CH) versus CN, and (5) N versus fixation. We compared whole-brain activation between groups for each run. In response to overt fear, BPD patients showed greater activation both in left amygdala and in several frontal cortical regions. There were no significant differences in brain activation in response to overt happy faces. In response to covert fear and covert happy stimuli, the BPD group also showed greater activation than controls in several regions including frontal and temporal cortical regions, as well as cerebellum and thalamus. These findings add to prior reports suggesting increased amygdala activation in BPD, but we found this only in the overt fear versus fixation condition. In this sample, BPD patients showed hyper-activation, rather than hypo-activation, of cortical regulatory regions during overt fear. Enhanced cortical recruitment in response to covert fear and happy faces in BPD could reflect a more extended response system in which stimuli that typically only activate automatic pathways are additionally tapping into cortical regulatory systems. The observation of this pattern both in response to fear and in response to happy presentations suggests that the effect of arousal may be as or more impactful than the effect of emotional valence.
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Hortensius R, Terburg D, Morgan B, Stein DJ, van Honk J, de Gelder B. The role of the basolateral amygdala in the perception of faces in natural contexts. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:rstb.2015.0376. [PMID: 27069053 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The amygdala is a complex structure that plays its role in perception and threat-related behaviour by activity of its specific nuclei and their separate networks. In the present functional magnetic resonance imaging study, we investigated the role of the basolateral amygdala in face and context processing. Five individuals with focal basolateral amygdala damage and 12 matched controls viewed fearful or neutral faces in a threatening or neutral context. We tested the hypothesis that basolateral amygdala damage modifies the relation between face and threatening context, triggering threat-related activation in the dorsal stream. The findings supported this hypothesis. First, activation was increased in the right precentral gyrus for threatening versus neutral scenes in the basolateral amygdala damage group compared with the control group. Second, activity in the bilateral middle frontal gyrus, and left anterior inferior parietal lobule was enhanced for neutral faces presented in a threatening versus neutral scene in the group with basolateral amygdala damage compared with controls. These findings provide the first evidence for the neural consequences of basolateral amygdala damage during the processing of complex emotional situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud Hortensius
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV Maastricht, The Netherlands Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Laboratory, Tilburg University, Warandelaan 2, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - David Terburg
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Barak Morgan
- Global Risk Governance Program, Department of Public Law and Institute for Humanities in Africa, University of Cape Town, University Avenue, Rondebosch 7700, Cape Town, South Africa DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Human Development, DVC Research Office, University of Witwatersrand, York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Dan J Stein
- Department of Psychiatry and Medical Research Council (MRC) Unit on Anxiety & Stress Disorders, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Jack van Honk
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IDM), University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Beatrice de Gelder
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, 6229 EV Maastricht, The Netherlands Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa
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Marstaller L, Burianová H, Reutens DC. Individual differences in structural and functional connectivity predict speed of emotion discrimination. Cortex 2016; 85:65-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Roberts AI, Roberts SGB. Wild chimpanzees modify modality of gestures according to the strength of social bonds and personal network size. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33864. [PMID: 27649626 PMCID: PMC5030607 DOI: 10.1038/srep33864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Primates form strong and enduring social bonds with others and these bonds have important fitness consequences. However, how different types of communication are associated with different types of social bonds is poorly understood. Wild chimpanzees have a large repertoire of gestures, from visual gestures to tactile and auditory gestures. We used social network analysis to examine the association between proximity bonds (time spent in close proximity) and rates of gestural communication in pairs of chimpanzees when the intended recipient was within 10 m of the signaller. Pairs of chimpanzees with strong proximity bonds had higher rates of visual gestures, but lower rates of auditory long-range and tactile gestures. However, individual chimpanzees that had a larger number of proximity bonds had higher rates of auditory and tactile gestures and lower rates of visual gestures. These results suggest that visual gestures may be an efficient way to communicate with a small number of regular interaction partners, but that tactile and auditory gestures may be more effective at communicating with larger numbers of weaker bonds. Increasing flexibility of communication may have played an important role in managing differentiated social relationships in groups of increasing size and complexity in both primate and human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Ilona Roberts
- Department of Psychology, University of Chester, Chester; Parkgate Road, Chester CH1 4BJ, UK
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Salvia E, Süß M, Tivadar R, Harkness S, Grosbras MH. Mirror Neurons System Engagement in Late Adolescents and Adults While Viewing Emotional Gestures. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1099. [PMID: 27489547 PMCID: PMC4951528 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Observing others’ actions enhances muscle-specific cortico-spinal excitability, reflecting putative mirror neurons activity. The exposure to emotional stimuli also modulates cortico-spinal excitability. We investigated how those two phenomena might interact when they are combined, i.e., while observing a gesture performed with an emotion, and whether they change during the transition between adolescence and adulthood, a period of social and brain maturation. We delivered single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the hand area of the left primary motor cortex of 27 healthy adults and adolescents and recorded their right first dorsal interossus (FDI) muscle activity (i.e., motor evoked potential – MEP), while they viewed either videos of neutral or angry hand actions and facial expressions, or neutral objects as a control condition. We reproduced the motor resonance and the emotion effects – hand-actions and emotional stimuli induced greater cortico-spinal excitability than the faces/control condition and neutral videos, respectively. Moreover, the influence of emotion was present for faces but not for hand actions, indicating that the motor resonance and the emotion effects might be non-additive. While motor resonance was observed in both groups, the emotion effect was present only in adults and not in adolescents. We discuss the possible neural bases of these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Salvia
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, UMR 7291, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseille, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Fédération 3C (FR 3512), Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseille, France
| | - Moritz Süß
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| | - Ruxandra Tivadar
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| | - Sarah Harkness
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| | - Marie-Hélène Grosbras
- Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, UMR 7291, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseille, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Fédération 3C (FR 3512), Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseille, France; Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
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Hortensius R, Schutter DJLG, de Gelder B. Personal distress and the influence of bystanders on responding to an emergency. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2016; 16:672-88. [PMID: 27126708 PMCID: PMC4949296 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-016-0423-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Spontaneous helping behavior during an emergency is influenced by the personality of the onlooker and by social situational factors such as the presence of bystanders. Here, we sought to determine the influences of sympathy, an other-oriented response, and personal distress, a self-oriented response, on the effect of bystanders during an emergency. In four experiments, we investigated whether trait levels of sympathy and personal distress predicted responses to an emergency in the presence of bystanders by using behavioral measures and single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. Sympathy and personal distress were expected to be associated with faster responses to an emergency without bystanders present, but only personal distress would predict slower responses to an emergency with bystanders present. The results of a cued reaction time task showed that people who reported higher levels of personal distress and sympathy responded faster to an emergency without bystanders (Exp. 1). In contrast to our predictions, perspective taking but not personal distress was associated with slower reaction times as the number of bystanders increased during an emergency (Exp. 2). However, the decrease in motor corticospinal excitability, a direct physiological measure of action preparation, with the increase in the number of bystanders was solely predicted by personal distress (Exp. 3). Incorporating cognitive load manipulations during the observation of an emergency suggested that personal distress is linked to an effect of bystanders on reflexive responding to an emergency (Exp. 4). Taken together, these results indicate that the presence of bystanders during an emergency reduces action preparation in people with a disposition to experience personal distress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud Hortensius
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dennis J L G Schutter
- Donders Institute of Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Beatrice de Gelder
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Hortensius R, Schutter DJLG, de Gelder B. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Personal distress, but not sympathy, predicts the negative influence of bystanders on responding to an emergency. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2015; 15:505. [PMID: 25465672 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-014-0326-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
At the request of the authors this article has been retracted. During the preparation of a follow-up study, a mistake was found in the experimental script of the cued reaction time task of experiment 2. Four out of six conditions were mislabeled. Consequently, the reported findings and their interpretation and discussion are incorrect. Careful reexamination and reanalyzing of the data using the correct labels revealed a pattern of results that is not entirely compatible with several of the main claims of the article. Importantly, the corrected results show that reaction times do not increase with more bystanders present at an emergency.Moreover, not only personal distress but also perspective taking predicts the negative influence of bystanders on reaction times.We believe that these new findings undermine our central claim of decreased action preparation as a function of bystanders present at an emergency and the enhancement of this effect in people with higher levels of trait personal distress. While the results and discussion of experiment 1 and 3 remain correct, the new results of experiment 2 influence the article to such an extent that we currently see no other option than to retract the article from publication. We will continue to work on this topic and hope to publish the new results in due time. We deeply regret the publication of invalid results.We sincerely apologize to the Editor and reviewers of the manuscript, and the readers of Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience.
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