1
|
Yao ZF, Fu HL, Liang CW, Li YJ, Wang CH. Electrophysiological differences in inhibitory control processing between collegiate level soccer players and non-athletes in the absence of performance differences. Brain Cogn 2024; 178:106179. [PMID: 38788319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2024.106179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Inhibitory control, the ability to manage conflicting responses and suppress inappropriate actions, is crucial for team sports athletes, including soccer players. While previous studies have shown that soccer players possess superior inhibitory control, the underlying mechanisms responsible for this advantage remain unclear. Thus, this research aimed to investigate the neural processes involved in conflict resolution and response inhibition, comparing collegiate level soccer players with non-athletes. Participants completed a novel go/no-go task that involved conflict resolution and response inhibition, while their electroencephalograms were recorded. Despite no significant difference in behavioral performance between the two groups, soccer players exhibited notable N2 and frontal midline theta modulations in response to conflict resolution and inhibition, which were comparatively weaker in non-athletes. Our findings suggest that expertise in team sports may enhance neural sensitivity to subtle yet significant information, even without a discernible behavioral advantage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zai-Fu Yao
- College of Education & Research Center for Education and Mind Sciences, 521 Nanda Road, East Dist., Nanda Campus, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan; Department of Kinesiology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City 30013, Taiwan; Basic Psychology Group, Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City 30013, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Lun Fu
- Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Wei Liang
- Office of Physical Education, National Chung Hsing University, 145 Xingda Rd., South Dist., Taichung City 402, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jui Li
- Director-General of Sport Bureau, Taichung City Government, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hao Wang
- Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan; Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Road, Tainan City, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shokuhifar G, Javanbakht M, Vahedi M, Mehrkian S, Aghadoost A. The relationship between speech in noise perception and auditory working memory capacity in monolingual and bilingual adults. Int J Audiol 2024:1-8. [PMID: 38557258 DOI: 10.1080/14992027.2024.2328556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Speech-in-noise perception is dependent on the interaction between sensory and cognitive processes. One factor that can relate to both processes is bilingualism. This study aimed to determine the correlation between auditory-working-memory and speech-in-noise in Persian monolinguals and Kurdish-Persian bilinguals. DESIGN Speech-in-noise tests (sentences-in-noise and syllables-in-noise) and auditory-working-memory tests (forward and backward digit span, and n-back) were performed. STUDY SAMPLE Participants were 48 Kurdish-Persian bilinguals with a mean age of 24 (±4) years and 48 Persian monolinguals with a mean age of 25 (±2) years with normal hearing. RESULTS Both language groups scored within normal limits in all memory and speech-in-noise tests. However, bilinguals performed significantly worse than monolinguals on all auditory-working-memory tests and the sentences-in-noise test. Monolinguals outperformed bilinguals in sentences-in-noise test (∼1.5 dB difference) and all auditory-working-memory tests (∼1 digit difference). The two groups did not significantly differ in syllables-in-noise test. Both groups had a significant correlation between working memory capacity and sentences-in-noise test. However, no significant correlation was found between syllables-in-noise and working memory capacity at any SNR. CONCLUSIONS Cognitive factors such as auditory working memory appear to correlate with speech-in-noise perception ability (at least at the sentence level) in monolingual and bilinguals young adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghazaal Shokuhifar
- Department of Audiology, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohanna Javanbakht
- Department of Audiology, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Secretary of Hearing loss/Deafness Studies Committee, Pediatric Neurorehabilitation Research Center, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Vahedi
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Substance Abuse and Dependence Research Center, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeideh Mehrkian
- Department of Audiology, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Aghadoost
- Department of Audiology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, School of Rehabilitation, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kalaivanan K. Lexical tone perception and learning in older adults: A review and future directions. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2023:17470218231211722. [PMID: 37873972 DOI: 10.1177/17470218231211722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
While the literature is well represented in accounting for how aging influences segmental properties of speech, less is known about its influences on suprasegmental properties such as lexical tones. In addition, foreign language learning is increasingly endorsed as being a potential intervention to boost cognitive reserve and overall well-being in older adults. Empirical studies on young learners learning lexical tones are aplenty in comparison with older learners. Challenges in this domain for older learners might be different due to aging and other learner-internal factors. This review consolidates behavioural and neuroscientific research related to lexical tone, speech perception, factors characterising learner groups, and other variables that would influence lexical tone perception and learning in older adults. Factors commonly identified to influence tone learning in younger adult populations, such as musical experience, language background, and motivation in learning a new language, are discussed in relation to older learner groups and recommendations to boost lexical tone learning in older age are provided based on existing studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kastoori Kalaivanan
- Neuroscience and Behavioural Disorders Programme, DUKE-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Antoniou K. The ups and downs of bilingualism: A review of the literature on executive control using event-related potentials. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:1187-1226. [PMID: 36703091 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02245-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Whether bilingualism enhances executive control (EC) is controversial. This article reviews 24 studies on the bilingual EC effect using event-related potentials (ERPs). It evaluates the evidence based on considerations of neural efficiency, different EC theories, and accounts regarding the locus of the bilingual effect. The review finds some evidence for a positive bilingual impact. This is more consistent for the P3 and response-locked ERPs. Moreover, when considering each component independently, evidence primarily supports a monitoring and secondarily an inhibition locus. Additionally, an N2/ERN (error-related negativity) dissociation (no bilingual N2 effect but positive ERN impact, evident as smaller ERN), coupled with the P3 results, suggest that monitoring may not be the (only) locus of a bilingual effect but (an)other post-monitoring mechanism(s). Attention disengagement also receives some support. Finally, results across studies are largely consistent with the Bilingualism Anterior to Posterior and Subcortical Shift model (BAPSS): Bilingual effects, when found, often manifest as shorter latencies, larger components or wider amplitude effects during earlier (N2, P3) but smaller components or narrower effects during later processing (stimulus-locked negativities and response-locked components). However, this evidence is not unequivocal. Many bilingual-monolingual comparisons reveal null or some suggest negative or opposite to prediction bilingual effects. Second, the scant evidence about which bilingual experiences impact EC is, generally, unclear, while some evidence indicates negative effects. Third, BAPSS is often not confirmed when multiple components are examined within subjects. Finally, this literature is challenged by confounds and small samples. Further research is required to conclude a positive bilingual effect on EC in ERPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyriakos Antoniou
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Cyprus University of Technology, 15 Vragadinou Street, 3041, Limassol, Cyprus.
- Hellenic Open University, Patra, Greece.
- Center for Applied Neuroscience, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Andras F, Ramos MÁ, Macizo P. The impact of bilingualism in within-language conflict resolution: an ERP study. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1173486. [PMID: 37303909 PMCID: PMC10248526 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1173486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We compared Spanish (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals and Spanish monolinguals in a semantic judgment relationship task in L1 that produced within-language conflict due to the coactivation of the two meanings of a Spanish homophone (e.g., "hola" and "ola" meaning "hello" and "a wave" in English). In this task, participants indicated if pairs of words were related or not ("agua-hola," "water-hello"). Conflict arose because a word ("agua," "water") not related to the orthographic form of a homophone ("hola," "hello") was related to the alternative orthographic form ("ola," "wave"). Compared to a control condition with unrelated word pairs ("peluche-hola," "teddy-hello"), the behavioral results revealed greater behavioral interference in monolinguals compared to bilinguals. In addition, electrophysiological results revealed N400 differences between monolinguals and bilinguals. These results are discussed around the impact of bilingualism on conflict resolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Filip Andras
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research Centre (CIMCYC), Granada, Spain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Ramos
- Institut Nacional d’Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pedro Macizo
- Mind, Brain and Behaviour Research Centre (CIMCYC), Granada, Spain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Carter F, DeLuca V, Segaert K, Mazaheri A, Krott A. Functional neural architecture of cognitive control mediates the relationship between individual differences in bilingual experience and behaviour. Neuroimage 2023; 273:120085. [PMID: 37019347 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Bilinguals have often, but not always, been found to outperform monolinguals on domain-general attentional control. Inconsistent findings have been argued to stem, at least partly, from treating bilingualism as a uniform category and from not considering how neural adaptations to bilingual experiences modulate behavioural outcomes. The present study investigated how patterns of language experience, including language switching behaviour, duration and intensity/diversity of bilingual language use, influence the brain processes underlying cognitive control, and how these in turn translate to cognitive control performance. We examined reaction times and spectral dynamics of the electroencephalograms (EEG) of two-hundred-and-thirty-nine participants (about 70% bilinguals) with diverse language experiences during two cognitive control paradigms testing interference suppression (flanker and Simon task). Using structural equation modelling, we found that different bilingual experience factors were related with neurocognitive measures, which in turn were related with behavioural interference effects, for the flanker but not the Simon task. More specifically, increased frequency of language switching and intensity / diversity of bilingual language usage was negatively related to induced top-down control measures (especially midline-frontal theta), which in turn was beneficial for interference control. In contrast, duration of bilingual engagement correlated negatively with evoked bottom-up control measures (especially P3) and was therefore detrimental to interference control. We demonstrate here for the first time how the different factors of bilingual experience lead to different neural adaptations which impact behavioural outcomes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Like other intensive experiences, bilingualism leads to brain adaptations. It results in structural changes in language areas, and, due to demands on language control, in brain areas associated with domain-general cognitive control. Related to this, bilinguals often outperform monolinguals on cognitive control tasks. But what is often ignored is that bilingualism is a multi-dimensional phenomenon, with variations such as diversity of language usage and duration of language use. The present large-scale study of neural functioning in bilingualism revealed for the first time how individual differences in bilingual experience lead to adaptations to brain functioning which in turn affect cognitive control behaviour. It exemplifies how the complexity of individual experiences plays a fundamental role in brain function.
Collapse
|
7
|
Meltzer JA, Kates Rose M, Le AY, Spencer KA, Goldstein L, Gubanova A, Lai AC, Yossofzai M, Armstrong SEM, Bialystok E. Improvement in executive function for older adults through smartphone apps: a randomized clinical trial comparing language learning and brain training. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2023; 30:150-171. [PMID: 34694201 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2021.1991262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Bilingualism has been linked to improved executive function and delayed onset of dementia, but it is unknown whether similar benefits can be obtained later in life through deliberate intervention. Given the logistical hurdles of second language acquisition in a randomized trial for older adults, few interventional studies have been done thus far. However, recently developed smartphone apps offer a convenient means to acquire skills in a second language and can be compared with brain training apps specifically designed to improve executive function. In a randomized clinical trial, 76 adults aged 65-75 were assigned to either 16 weeks of Spanish learning using the app Duolingo 30 minutes a day, an equivalent amount of brain training using the app BrainHQ, or a waitlist control condition. Executive function was assessed before and after the intervention with preregistered (NCT03638882) tests previously linked to better performance in bilinguals. For two of the primary measures: incongruent Stroop color naming and 2-back accuracy, Duolingo provided equivalent benefits as BrainHQ compared to a control group. On reaction time for N-back and Simon tests, the BrainHQ group alone experienced strong gains over the other two groups. Duolingo was rated as more enjoyable. These results suggest that app-based language learning may provide some similar benefits as brain training in improving executive function in seniors but has less impact on processing speed. However, future advancements in app design may optimize not only the acquisition of the target language but also the side benefits of the language learning experience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jed A Meltzer
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto ON, Canada.,Department of Speech-Language Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto ON, Canada.,Canadian Partnership for Stroke Recovery, Ottawa ON, Canada
| | - Mira Kates Rose
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Anna Y Le
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Kiah A Spencer
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Leora Goldstein
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Alina Gubanova
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Abbie C Lai
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | - Maryam Yossofzai
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada
| | | | - Ellen Bialystok
- Baycrest Health Sciences, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Calvo N, Grundy JG, Bialystok E. Bilingualism modulates neural efficiency at rest through alpha reactivity. Neuropsychologia 2023; 180:108486. [PMID: 36657519 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2023.108486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate how resting state EEG rhythms reflect attentional processes and bilingual experience. We compared alpha and beta rhythms for monolingual and bilingual young adults in eyes open and eyes closed conditions using EEG measures of frequency power, reactivity, and coherence. Power shows the amount of brain activity at a given frequency band; reactivity indexes the desynchronization of neuronal activity when individuals open their eyes at rest; and coherence indicates the brain regions that have correlated activity. The results showed that bilinguals had similar alpha power as monolinguals in both resting conditions but less alpha reactivity across the whole scalp. There was also more focused activation for bilinguals expressed as more coherence in posterior electrodes, particularly when eyes were opened to direct attention. For beta, there were no group differences in power or reactivity, but there was higher coherence for monolinguals than bilinguals, a pattern consistent with previous literature showing that beta frequency was related to language learning and native language proficiency. These results are in line with a neural efficiency theory and suggest that bilinguals have a more efficient brain for attentional mechanisms than monolinguals at rest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Calvo
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - John G Grundy
- Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Ellen Bialystok
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Markiewicz R, Mazaheri A, Krott A. Bilingualism can cause enhanced monitoring and occasional delayed responses in a flanker task. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 57:129-147. [PMID: 36373596 PMCID: PMC10100525 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Complex cognitive tasks require different stages of processing (i.e. conflict monitoring, attentional resource allocation and stimulus categorisation). Performance differences between bilinguals and monolinguals on conflict tasks can be affected by the balance of these sub-processes. The current study investigated the effect of bilingualism on these sub-processes during a conflict task with medium monitoring demand. Behavioural responses and evoked potentials from bilinguals and monolinguals were examined during a flanker task with 25% incongruent trials. Behavioural differences were analysed by means of averaged response times and exponentially modified Gaussian analyses of response time distributions. For evoked potentials, the study focussed on N2 (reflecting conflict monitoring) and P3 responses (reflecting allocation of attentional resources for cognitive control). Bilinguals had significantly longer response distribution tails compared to monolinguals. Bilinguals were shown to have a more pronounced N2 and smaller P3 compared to monolinguals, independent of condition, suggesting a different balance of sub-processes for the two groups. This suggests that bilinguals were engaged more strongly in monitoring processes, leading to the allocation of fewer attentional resources during stimulus categorisation. Additionally, the P3 amplitudes were negatively related with the length of response distribution tails for bilinguals. These results are consistent with enhanced conflict monitoring in bilinguals that led to reduced engagement of attentional resources for stimulus categorisation. This enhanced conflict monitoring could lead to occasional extremely slow responses. Thus, the bilingual experience appears to impact the balance of cognitive control processes during conflict tasks, which might only be reflected in a minority of responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ali Mazaheri
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.,Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Andrea Krott
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.,Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Dash T, Joanette Y, Ansaldo AI. Multifactorial approaches to study bilingualism in the aging population: Past, present, future. Front Psychol 2022; 13:917959. [PMID: 35967735 PMCID: PMC9372590 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.917959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A better understanding and more reliable classification of bilinguals has been progressively achieved through the fine-tuning methodology and simultaneously optimizing the measurement tools. However, the current understanding is far from generalization to a larger population varying in different measures of bilingualism-L2 Age of acquisition (L2 AOA), L2 usage and exposure, and L2 proficiency. More recent studies have highlighted the importance of modeling bilingualism as a continuous variable. An in-depth look at the role of bilingualism, comparing groups, may be considered a reductionist approach, i.e., grouping based on one measure of bilingualism (e.g., L2 AOA) may not account for variability in other measures of bilingualism (L2 exposure, L2 use or L2 proficiency, amongst others) within and between groups. Similarly, a multifactorial dimension is associated with cognitive performance, where not all domains of cognition and subcomponents are equally influenced by bilingualism. In addition, socio-cultural and demographical factors may add another dimension to the impact of bilingualism on cognitive performance, especially in older adults. Nevertheless, not many studies have controlled or used the multiple socio-cultural and demographical factors as a covariate to understand the role of different aspects of bilingualism that may influence cognitive performance differently. Such an approach would fail to generalize the research findings to a larger group of bilinguals. In the present review paper, we illustrate that considering a multifactorial approach to different dimensions of bilingual study may lead to a better understanding of the role of bilingualism on cognitive performance. With the evolution of various fine-tuned methodological approaches, there is a greater need to study variability in bilingual profiles that can help generalize the result universally.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tanya Dash
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yves Joanette
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- École d'orthophonie et d'audiologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Ana Inés Ansaldo
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- École d'orthophonie et d'audiologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Chen S, Lin Y, Zuo S, Wang Z, Liang J, Jiang Z, Xu Y, Wang P, Jing X, Lin L. Cognitive Advantage of Bilingualism Over Monolingualism in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis. Curr Alzheimer Res 2022; 19:555-567. [PMID: 36125836 DOI: 10.2174/1567205019666220920092234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to explore whether bilingual older adults had a cognitive advantage over their monolingual counterparts, and validate the influence of cognition-related (participants' cognitive condition, the cognitive domain assessed), and bilingualism-related factors (second language proficiency, frequency of use, acquisition time, and immigration status of participants)on the cognitive advantage of bilingualism. METHODS Through a systematic search of nine databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier Science Direct, Cochrane Library, Embase, PsycINFO, CNKI, VIP and Wanfang) from the inception to April 2021, observational studies with bilingual and monolingual older adults as participants and cognitive function scores as outcome measures were included. Two reviewers independently completed the selection and methodological quality assessment of studies using the JBI cross-sectional study quality evaluation tool and used a pre-designed table for data extraction and sorting. RESULTS Fourteen studies with 51 tasks were included, involving 3737 participants (bilingual group: 1695, monolingual group: 2042). The overall results of the meta-analysis showed that bilingualism had a small cognitive advantage over monolingualism in older adults [SMD=0.23, 95%CI (0.07, 0.38), P=0.004]. In addition, the subgroup analyses indicated that factors such as participants' cognitive condition, the cognitive domain assessed, second language proficiency, acquisition time, and immigration status of participants impacted the cognitive advantage of bilingualism in older adults. CONCLUSION Bilingualism had a mild cognitive advantage over monolingualism in older adults, which was more prominent in older adults with mild cognitive impairment than in cognitively healthy ones, more evident in global cognitive function and inhibitory control than in other individual cognitive domains, and might be influenced by the proficiency and acquisition time of second language as well as the immigration status of older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Si Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yuying Lin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Shufang Zuo
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Ziyu Wang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jinghong Liang
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Zheng Jiang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yue Xu
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Peiyu Wang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Xiuchen Jing
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Lu Lin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Grant AM, Kousaie S, Coulter K, Gilbert AC, Baum SR, Gracco V, Titone D, Klein D, Phillips NA. Age of Acquisition Modulates Alpha Power During Bilingual Speech Comprehension in Noise. Front Psychol 2022; 13:865857. [PMID: 35548507 PMCID: PMC9083356 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.865857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on bilingualism has grown exponentially in recent years. However, the comprehension of speech in noise, given the ubiquity of both bilingualism and noisy environments, has seen only limited focus. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies in monolinguals show an increase in alpha power when listening to speech in noise, which, in the theoretical context where alpha power indexes attentional control, is thought to reflect an increase in attentional demands. In the current study, English/French bilinguals with similar second language (L2) proficiency and who varied in terms of age of L2 acquisition (AoA) from 0 (simultaneous bilinguals) to 15 years completed a speech perception in noise task. Participants were required to identify the final word of high and low semantically constrained auditory sentences such as "Stir your coffee with a spoon" vs. "Bob could have known about the spoon" in both of their languages and in both noise (multi-talker babble) and quiet during electrophysiological recording. We examined the effects of language, AoA, semantic constraint, and listening condition on participants' induced alpha power during speech comprehension. Our results show an increase in alpha power when participants were listening in their L2, suggesting that listening in an L2 requires additional attentional control compared to the first language, particularly early in processing during word identification. Additionally, despite similar proficiency across participants, our results suggest that under difficult processing demands, AoA modulates the amount of attention required to process the second language.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Grant
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Shanna Kousaie
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Kristina Coulter
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Annie C Gilbert
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Shari R Baum
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Vincent Gracco
- School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Debra Titone
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychology, McGill University Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Denise Klein
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Natalie A Phillips
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Bloomfield Centre for Research in Aging, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research and Jewish General Hospital, McGill University Memory Clinic, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1246-1269. [PMID: 35091993 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It has been claimed that bilingual experience leads to an enhancement of cognitive control across the lifespan, a claim that has been investigated by comparing monolingual and bilingual groups performing standard executive function (EF) tasks. The results of these studies have been inconsistent, however, leading to controversy over the essential assumptions underlying the research program, namely, whether bilingualism produces cognitive change. We argue that the source of the inconsistency is not in the evidence but rather in the framework that has typically been used to motivate the research and interpret the results. We examine the componential view of EF with its central role for inhibition and argue that it provides a poor fit to both bilingual experience and the results of these studies. As an alternative, we propose a more holistic account based on attentional control that overrides the processes in the componential model of EF and applies to a wider range of tasks. The key element in our account is that behavioral differences between monolingual and bilingual individuals reflect differences in the efficiency and deployment of attentional control between the two language groups. In support of this point we show how attentional control provides a more satisfactory account for a range of findings that cannot reasonably be attributed to inhibition. We also suggest that group differences will emerge only when the attentional demands of a task exceed the control abilities of one of the groups, regardless of the EF components involved. We then review literature from across the lifespan to evaluate the extent to which this account is consistent with existing evidence, and conclude with some suggestions on how the field may be advanced by new lines of empirical enquiry.
Collapse
|
14
|
Dash T, Joanette Y, Ansaldo AI. Exploring attention in the bilingualism continuum: A resting-state functional connectivity study. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2022; 224:105048. [PMID: 34781212 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study explores the effects of bilingualism on the subcomponents of attention using resting state functional connectivity analysis (rsFC). Unlike previous studies, measures of bilingualism - L2 Age of Acquisition (AOA), L2 exposure, and L2 proficiency - were examined along a continuum to study attentional mechanisms using rsFC instead of dichotomizing them. 20 seed regions were pre-selected for the three subcomponents of attention. The results showed a positive association between behavioral performance and rsFC for the seeds in alerting and orienting network; this was not true for the seeds in the executive control network. Secondly, rsFC for attention networks varied with different levels of bilingualism. The objective measures of bilingualism modulate all three attention networks. While the subjective measures such as L2 AOA modulates specific attention network. Thus, language performance in contrast to self-reported information, as a measure of bilingualism, has a greater potential to tap into the role of bilingualism in attentional processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tanya Dash
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, 4565 Queen-Mary Road, Montreal, Quebec H3W 1W5, Canada; École d'orthophonie et d'audiologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3N 1X7, Canada.
| | - Yves Joanette
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, 4565 Queen-Mary Road, Montreal, Quebec H3W 1W5, Canada; École d'orthophonie et d'audiologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3N 1X7, Canada
| | - Ana Inés Ansaldo
- Centre de recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal, 4565 Queen-Mary Road, Montreal, Quebec H3W 1W5, Canada; École d'orthophonie et d'audiologie, Faculté de médecine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3N 1X7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Romero C, Uddin LQ. Bilingualism, Executive Function, and the Brain: Implications for Autism. NEUROBIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2021; 2:513-531. [PMID: 37214624 PMCID: PMC10158561 DOI: 10.1162/nol_a_00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with marked heterogeneity with respect to the development of executive function abilities. The bilingual advantage refers to the observation that individuals who speak two languages perform better on executive function tasks than monolinguals under some circumstances. There is not yet consensus, however, as to whether this advantage can be reliably demonstrated, nor is there consensus regarding under which conditions it emerges. Bilingual and monolingual children with ASD have comparable developmental outcomes, particularly in the areas of core ASD symptoms, cognitive function, and language. Still, despite the potential advantages that bilingualism may confer, clinicians commonly advise against providing a bilingual environment for children with ASD. The purpose of the present review is to provide an up-to-date assessment of the limited literature on bilingualism in children with ASD in order to inform evidence-based practice. Studies suggest a potential bilingual advantage in ASD in the areas of nonverbal intelligence quotient, adaptive functioning, and expressive vocabulary. A limited yet growing literature provides preliminary evidence for enhanced executive function ability in some children with ASD. Taken together, current evidence suggests that although a bilingual advantage may not be universally present in typical development, it may manifest under specific circumstances, conferring advantage for populations in which executive function is compromised. Further work is needed to develop consistent, evidence-based guidelines around language recommendations for families of children with ASD and to better understand the cognitive and brain mechanisms giving rise to the bilingual advantage in clinical developmental populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celia Romero
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | - Lucina Q. Uddin
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
- Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Calvo N, Bialystok E. Electrophysiological signatures of attentional control in bilingual processing: Evidence from proactive interference. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2021; 222:105027. [PMID: 34560557 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Monolingual and bilingual participants performed a Proactive Interference task in verbal and nonverbal conditions while EEG was recorded. Behavioral results showed faster responses for bilinguals on interference trials in the nonverbal condition, and electrophysiological results indicated greater attentional control for bilinguals. ROI analyses showed this pattern for bilinguals mainly in the verbal condition, whereas whole brain analyses found this association in both conditions. Frequency power analysis found activity related to interference trials was associated with recruitment of different neural resources for verbal and nonverbal conditions. Nonverbal results indicated beta activity for interference trials in bilinguals and the verbal condition showed this pattern in theta and gamma frequency bands as well, revealing more extensive brain activation in the verbal domain for bilinguals. For monolinguals, frequency power in beta, gamma, and theta were related to facilitation trials. These results suggest different strategies for allocating attention by monolingual and bilingual young adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Calvo
- Department of Psychology, York University, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kousaie S, Chen JK, Baum SR, Phillips NA, Titone D, Klein D. Bilingual language experience and the neural underpinnings of working memory. Neuropsychologia 2021; 163:108081. [PMID: 34728242 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.108081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A longstanding question in cognitive neuroscience and in the bilingualism literature is how early language experience influences brain development and cognitive outcomes, and whether these effects are global or specific to language-related processes. The current investigation examined the effect of the timing of language learning on the performance and neural correlates of phonological and non-verbal working memory, subcomponents of executive function. Three groups of bilinguals, who varied in terms of the timing of second language learning (i.e., simultaneous bilinguals learned their two languages from birth; early and late bilinguals who learned their second language before or after 5 years of age, respectively), performed phonological and non-verbal working memory tasks in the magnetic resonance imaging scanner. Results showed that there were no group differences in performance on either of the tasks, or in the neural correlates of performance of the non-verbal task. However, critically, we showed that despite similar behavioural performance, the groups differed in the patterns of neural recruitment during performance of the phonological working memory task. The pattern of group differences was non-linear, demonstrating similar neural recruitment for simultaneous and late bilinguals that differed from early bilinguals. Findings from the current study suggest a dynamic mapping between the brain and cognition, contributing to our current understanding of the effect of the timing of language learning on cognitive processes and demonstrating a specific effect on language-related executive function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shanna Kousaie
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada; Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada; Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada.
| | - Jen-Kai Chen
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada; Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada
| | - Shari R Baum
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada; School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Natalie A Phillips
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada; Department of Psychology/Centre for Research in Human Development, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada; Bloomfield Centre for Research in Aging, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research and Jewish General Hospital/McGill University Memory Clinic, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, H3T 1E2, Canada
| | - Debra Titone
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada; Department of Psychology, McGill University Montreal, QC, H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Denise Klein
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada; Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3G 2A8, Canada; Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wang Y, Ji Q, Fu R, Zhang G, Lu Y, Zhou C. Hand-related action words impair action anticipation in expert table tennis players: Behavioral and neural evidence. Psychophysiology 2021; 59:e13942. [PMID: 34535903 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Athletes extract kinematic information to anticipate action outcomes. Here, we examined the influence of linguistic information (experiment 1, 2) and its underlying neural correlates (experiment 2) on anticipatory judgment. Table tennis experts and novices remembered a hand- or leg-related verb or a spatial location while predicting the trajectory of a ball in a video occluded at the moment of the serve. Experiment 1 showed that predictions by experts were more accurate than novices, but experts' accuracy significantly decreased when hand-related words versus spatial locations were memorized. For nonoccluded videos with ball trajectories congruent or incongruent with server actions in experiment 2, remembering hand-related verbs shared cognitive resources with action anticipation only in experts, with heightened processing load (increased P3 amplitude) and more efficient conflict monitoring (decreased N2 amplitude) versus leg-related verbs. Thus, action anticipation required updating of motor representations facilitated by motor expertize but was also affected by effector-specific semantic representations of actions, suggesting a link from language to motor systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Wang
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingchun Ji
- Physical Education Department, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Rao Fu
- Faculty of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, School of Biomedical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Guanghui Zhang
- Faculty of Information Technology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Yingzhi Lu
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Chenglin Zhou
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Cespón J. Neural Processing Underlying Executive Functions in Bilinguals: "Heads I Win, Tails You Lose". Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:710905. [PMID: 34421564 PMCID: PMC8373519 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.710905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Cespón
- Basque Centre on Cognition, Brain and Language, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Instruction in second language enhances linguistic and cognitive abilities in first language as well: evidence from public school education in Nepal. JOURNAL OF CULTURAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s41809-021-00084-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
21
|
Nijmeijer SE, van Tol MJ, Aleman A, Keijzer M. Foreign Language Learning as Cognitive Training to Prevent Old Age Disorders? Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Language Training vs. Musical Training and Social Interaction in Elderly With Subjective Cognitive Decline. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:550180. [PMID: 33986653 PMCID: PMC8111015 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.550180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: With aging comes a reduction of cognitive flexibility, which has been related to the development of late-life depression and progression of general cognitive decline. Several factors have been linked to attenuating such decline in cognitive flexibility, such as education, physical exercise and stimulating leisure activities. Speaking two or more languages has recently received abundant attention as another factor that may build up cognitive reserve, thereby limiting the functional implications of compromised cognition that accompany old age. With the number of older adults reaching record levels, it is important to attenuate the development of old-age disorders. Learning to speak a foreign language might offer a powerful tool in promoting healthy aging, but up to date effect studies are sparse. Here, the protocol that forms the foundation of the current study is presented. The present study aims to: (1) examine the effects of a foreign language training on cognitive flexibility and its neural underpinnings, and on mental health; and (2) assess the unique role of foreign language training vs. other cognitive or social programs. Method: One-hundred and ninety-eight Dutch elderly participants reporting subjective cognitive decline are included and randomized to either a language intervention, a music intervention, or a social control intervention. During 3 to 6 months, the language group learns English, the music group learns to play the guitar and the social group participates in social meetings where art workshops are offered. At baseline, at a 3-month follow-up, and at 6 months after termination of the training program, clinical, cognitive and brain activity measurements (combined EEG and fNIRS methods) are taken to assess cognitive flexibility and mental health. Discussion: This is the first trial addressing combined effects of language learning in elderly on cognition, language proficiency, socio-affective measures, and brain activity in the context of a randomized controlled trial. If successful, this study can provide insights into how foreign language training can contribute to more cognitively and mentally healthy years in older adulthood. Clinical Trial Registration: The trial is registered at the Netherlands Trial Register, July 2, 2018, trial number NL7137. https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/7137.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Saskia E. Nijmeijer
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Marie-José van Tol
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - André Aleman
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Merel Keijzer
- English Linguistics and English as a Second Language, Bilingualism and Aging Lab, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Tao L, Wang G, Zhu M, Cai Q. Bilingualism and domain-general cognitive functions from a neural perspective: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 125:264-295. [PMID: 33631315 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A large body of research has indicated that bilingualism - through continual practice in language control - may impact cognitive functions, as well as relevant aspects of brain function and structure. The present review aimed to bring together findings on the relationship between bilingualism and domain-general cognitive functions from a neural perspective. The final sample included 210 studies, covering findings regarding neural responses to bilingual language control and/or domain-general cognitive tasks, as well as findings regarding effects of bilingualism on non-task-related brain function and brain structure. The evidence indicates that a) bilingual language control likely entails neural mechanisms responsible for domain-general cognitive functions; b) bilingual experiences impact neural responses to domain-general cognitive functions; and c) bilingual experiences impact non-task-related brain function (both resting-state and metabolic function) as well as aspects of brain structure (both macrostructure and microstructure), each of which may in turn impact mental processes, including domain-general cognitive functions. Such functional and structural neuroplasticity associated with bilingualism may contribute to both cognitive and neural reserves, producing benefits across the lifespan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lily Tao
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE & STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, China
| | - Gongting Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE & STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, China
| | - Miaomiao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE & STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, China
| | - Qing Cai
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (MOE & STCSM), Shanghai Changning-ECNU Mental Health Center, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, China; Institute of Brain and Education Innovation, East China Normal University, China; NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science, New York University Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bellegarda M, Macizo P. Cognitive Control and Bilingualism: The Bilingual Advantage Through the Lens of Dimensional Overlap. Front Psychol 2021; 12:614849. [PMID: 33643142 PMCID: PMC7905233 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Past research shows that the bilingual experience may enhance cognitive executive function. In this experiment, we evaluated cognitive control in bilinguals relative to monolinguals by using a dimensional overlap model to predict performance in a task composed of Stroop and Simon stimuli. A group of 24 Spanish monolinguals and 24 bilinguals with differing first languages and all having Spanish as a second language (L2) did a picture naming task and a task composed of Stroop and Simon stimuli, where the effect of different overlap conditions (spatial/color) between stimuli and responses were examined. The tasks were performed in Spanish for both groups and performance was indexed with behavioral and electrophysiological measures. We hypothesized that the bilinguals' daily language practice in L2 reflected overlap conditions similar to the Simon task. Both naming a picture in L2 and the Simon task would involve conflict at the response level. L2 picture naming entails interference between two potential oral responses, to name in L2 vs. L1 (correct vs. incorrect responses, respectively). Similarly, incongruent stimuli in the Simon task produce interference because the irrelevant dimension (spatial location) overlap with an incorrect response. In contrast, the manual Stroop task involves a different type of conflict between two overlapping stimulus dimensions (the ink color and the color meaning). We predicted for these reasons a superior performance in Simon tasks over Stroop tasks for bilinguals, while monolinguals were expected to have a similar performance in both tasks. We also expected to see a correlation between the performance on the picture naming task and the Simon task in bilinguals. However, the behavioral results did not confirm these hypotheses. In fact, both groups had similar congruency effects as measured by reaction times and error rates, and there was no correlation between the picture naming and Simon task in bilinguals. Despite this, the electrophysiological data suggested a relationship between the picture naming task and the P300 congruency effect in bilinguals. Our findings provide insights into the neurocognitive bases of language and serve as a research avenue for language behaviors in bilinguals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melodie Bellegarda
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Pedro Macizo
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Cespón J, Carreiras M. Is there electrophysiological evidence for a bilingual advantage in neural processes related to executive functions? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 118:315-330. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
25
|
Heredia RR, Blackburn AM, Vega LA. Moderation-Mediation Effects in Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve. Front Psychol 2020; 11:572555. [PMID: 33101142 PMCID: PMC7554512 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.572555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We first provide a critical review of the existing findings on bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve from moderator-mediator warranting cause-effect research conclusions. We next address the question of direct or indirect effects between bilingualism and neurocognitive protective factors influencing the associated age-related mental deficits. The existing findings support bilingualism as a predictor and as a moderator. Third, we propose cognitive reserve models of bilingualism describing analytical approaches that allow testing of these models and hypotheses related to path strength and causal relationships between predictors, moderators, and mediators. Lastly and most importantly, we suggest using large datasets available via open repositories. This can aid in the testing of theoretical models, clarifying the roles of moderators and mediators, and assessing the research viability of multi-causal paths that can influence cognitive reserve. Creating collaborative datasets to test these models would greatly advance our field and identify critical variables in the study of the bilingual aging brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto R Heredia
- Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, United States
| | - Angélique M Blackburn
- Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, United States
| | - Luis A Vega
- Department of Psychology, California State University-Bakersfield, Bakersfield, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Chan CGH, Yow WQ, Oei A. Active Bilingualism in Aging: Balanced Bilingualism Usage and Less Frequent Language Switching Relate to Better Conflict Monitoring and Goal Maintenance Ability. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2020; 75:e231-e241. [PMID: 32363388 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbaa058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Experience-related neuroplasticity suggests that bilinguals who actively manage their two languages would develop more efficient neural organization at brain regions related to language control, which also overlap with areas involved in executive control. Our aim was to examine how active bilingualism-manifested as the regular balanced use of two languages and language switching-may be related to the different domains of executive control in highly proficient healthy older adult bilinguals, controlling for age, processing speed, and fluid intelligence. METHODS Participants were 76 community-dwelling older adults who reported being physically and mentally healthy and showed no signs of cognitive impairment. They completed a self-report questionnaire on their language background, two computer measures for previously identified covariates (processing speed as measured by two-choice reaction time (RT) task and fluid intelligence as measured by the Raven's Progressive Matrices), as well as a battery of computerized executive control tasks (Color-shape Task Switching, Stroop, Flanker, and Spatial 2-back task). RESULTS Regression analyses showed that, even after controlling for age, processing speed, and fluid intelligence, more balanced bilingualism usage and less frequent language switching predicted higher goal maintenance (nonswitch trials RT in Color-shape Task Switching) and conflict monitoring abilities (global RT in Color-shape Task Switching and Flanker task). DISCUSSION Results suggest that active bilingualism may provide benefits to maintaining specific executive control abilities in older adult bilinguals against the natural age-related declines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clara G H Chan
- Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Singapore University of Technology and Design
| | - Wei Quin Yow
- Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Singapore University of Technology and Design
| | - Adam Oei
- Centre for Research on Rehabilitation and Protection, Rehabilitation and Protection Group, Ministry of Social and Family Development, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Teubner-Rhodes S. Cognitive Persistence and Executive Function in the Multilingual Brain During Aging. Front Psychol 2020; 11:568702. [PMID: 33013606 PMCID: PMC7494780 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers have debated the extent to which the experience of speaking more than two languages induces long-term neuroplasticity that protects multilinguals from the adverse cognitive effects of aging. In this review, I propose a novel theory that multilingualism affects cognitive persistence, the application of effort to improve performance on challenging tasks. I review recent evidence demonstrating that the cingulo-opercular network, consisting of the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), supports cognitive persistence. I then show that this same network is involved in multilingual language control and changes with multilingual language experience. While both early and late multilinguals exhibit differences in the cingulo-opercular network compared to monolinguals, I find that early multilinguals have a pattern of decreased dACC activity and increased left IFG activity that may enable more efficient cognitive control, whereas late multilinguals show larger dACC responses to conflict that may be associated with higher cognitive persistence. I further demonstrate that multilingual effects on the cingulo-opercular network are present in older adults and have been implicated in the mitigation of cognitive symptoms in age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Finally, I argue that mixed results in the literature are due, in part, to the confound between cognitive persistence and ability in most executive function tasks, and I provide guidance for separating these processes in future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Teubner-Rhodes
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Jiao L, Liu C, Bruin A, Chen B. Effects of language context on executive control in unbalanced bilinguals: An ERPs study. Psychophysiology 2020; 57:e13653. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2019] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Jiao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education Faculty of Psychology Beijing Normal University Beijing China
| | - Cong Liu
- Department of Psychology Normal College & School of Teacher Education Qingdao University Qingdao China
| | - Angela Bruin
- Department of Psychology University of York York UK
| | - Baoguo Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education Faculty of Psychology Beijing Normal University Beijing China
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Ware AT, Kirkovski M, Lum JAG. Meta-Analysis Reveals a Bilingual Advantage That Is Dependent on Task and Age. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1458. [PMID: 32793026 PMCID: PMC7394008 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Debate continues on whether a bilingual advantage exists with respect to executive functioning. This report synthesized the results of 170 studies to test whether the bilingual advantage is dependent on the task used to assess executive functioning and the age of the participants. The results of the meta-analyses indicated that the bilingual advantage was both task- and age-specific. Bilinguals were significantly faster than monolinguals (Hedges' g values ranged from 0.23 to 0.34), and significantly more accurate than monolinguals (Hedges' g values ranged between 0.18 and 0.49) on four out of seven tasks. Also, an effect of age was found whereby the bilingual advantage was larger for studies comprising samples aged 50-years and over (Hedges' g = 0.49), compared to those undertaken with participants aged between 18 and 29 years (Hedges' g = 0.12). The extent to which the bilingual advantage might be due to publication bias was assessed using multiple methods. These were Egger's Test of Asymmetry, Duval and Tweedie's Trim and Fill, Classic Fail-Safe N, and PET-PEESE. Publication bias was only found when using Egger's Test of Asymmetry and PET-PEESE method, but not when using the other methods. This review indicates that if bilingualism does enhance executive functioning, the effects are modulated by task and age. This may arise because using multiple languages has a highly specific effect on executive functioning which is only observable in older, relative to younger, adults. The finding that publication bias was not uniformly detected across the different methods raises questions about the impact that unpublished (or undetected) studies have on meta-analyses of this literature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jarrad A. G. Lum
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Celik S, Kokje E, Meyer P, Frölich L, Teichmann B. Does bilingualism influence neuropsychological test performance in older adults? A systematic review. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2020; 29:855-873. [PMID: 32677470 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2020.1788032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Using standardized tests which have been normed on monolinguals for the assessment of bilinguals presents challenges to the accurate characterization of cognitive profile as the literature provides compelling evidence for the influence of bilingualism on cognitive abilities. However, little is known about the generalizability of these findings to clinical neuropsychology. The aim of this review was to address this gap by summarizing current evidence on the performance of bilingual older adults on standardized tests routinely used in clinical practice. METHOD A systematic search of Web of Science, PsycINFO and PubMed was conducted. 27 cross-sectional and longitudinal studies which use at least one standardized neuropsychological test for cognitive impairment were included in the review. Potential demographic (cultural/linguistic background of the participants, immigrant status), clinical (diagnostic status), and methodological confounders (language of test administration, components of bilingualism) were also examined. The review protocol was registered at the PROSPERO International Prospective Register of Systematic Review with registration number CRD42018114658. RESULTS The results of this review revealed some bilingual advantage on measures of inhibitory control and bilingual disadvantage on measures of verbal fluency in cross-sectional studies. Bilingualism status was not associated with test performance in longitudinal studies. However, findings lack consistency due to demographic variables and methodological differences across studies. CONCLUSION Neuropsychological tests assessing language domains and, to some extent executive function act as clinically relevant features of bilingualism for neuropsychological evaluation. However, immigration status, acculturation level and language of test administration needs to be taken into account when assessing bilingual older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simge Celik
- Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eesha Kokje
- Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Patric Meyer
- Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.,Faculty of Applied Psychology, SRH University Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lutz Frölich
- Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.,Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Birgit Teichmann
- Network Aging Research, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Morrison C, Taler V. ERP measures of the effects of age and bilingualism on working memory performance. Neuropsychologia 2020; 143:107468. [PMID: 32305300 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has suggested that bilinguals may exhibit cognitive advantages over those who are monolingual, although conflicting results have been reported. This advantage may be heightened in older adults, because of age-related cognitive decline. However, the effects of bilingualism on working memory performance in older adults remain unknown. The current study uses electroencephalography to measure brain activity (event-related potential; ERP) differences between young and older monolinguals and bilinguals during a delayed matching-to-sample task. Although there were no effects of bilingualism in behavioral measures, differences were observed in electrophysiological measures. While no Age by Language interaction was observed, several main effects were identified. Compared to young adults, older adults exhibited smaller N2 amplitudes and larger P2 and P3b amplitudes in the medium and high load conditions. Older adults also displayed an increased slow wave amplitude that occurred in conjunction with increased reaction time. ERP differences during difficult tasks in older adults suggest the use of compensatory mechanisms to maintain similar performance to the young adults. Bilinguals exhibited smaller N2 and larger P2 and P3b amplitudes than monolinguals. ERP differences observed in bilinguals may reflect differences in cognitive processing. However, in the absence of performance differences between monolinguals and bilinguals, interpreting a bilingual advantage in working memory processing is difficult.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra Morrison
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Canada, & Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Vanessa Taler
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Canada, & Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Massa E, Köpke B, El Yagoubi R. Age-related effect on language control and executive control in bilingual and monolingual speakers: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Neuropsychologia 2020; 138:107336. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
|
33
|
Tong T, Chignell M, DeGuzman CA. Using a serious game to measure executive functioning: response inhibition ability. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2019; 28:673-684. [PMID: 31718294 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2019.1683561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In previous research, we developed a serious target acquisition game (with moles as targets) for assessing cognitive speed. Tong, Chignell, Tierney, and Lee demonstrated that performance on the game may be a useful screening tool for risk of delirium onset. In this study, we validate a version of the game where there are not only targets (moles) that should be hit but also distractors (butterflies, or moles with hats) that should not be hit. We hypothesized that performance on the game should be a measure of response inhibition ability, which has been implicated as a factor in many types of psychopathology. We carried out an experiment (with 30 healthy participants) to test whether the serious game does in fact measure response inhibition by comparing game performance with a standard response inhibition task (the Go/No-Go discrimination task). Our results show that, with the distractors, the game does in fact assess response inhibition ability. We discuss the implications of this work for assessing executive functions in the elderly, and for evaluating recovery in neuro-rehabilitation, and declining ability to perform activities of daily living.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany Tong
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Mark Chignell
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Chelsea A DeGuzman
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Beatty-Martínez AL, Navarro-Torres CA, Dussias PE, Bajo MT, Guzzardo Tamargo RE, Kroll JF. Interactional context mediates the consequences of bilingualism for language and cognition. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2019; 46:1022-1047. [PMID: 31580119 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Proficient bilinguals use two languages actively, but the contexts in which they do so may differ dramatically. The present study asked what consequences the contexts of language use hold for the way in which cognitive resources modulate language abilities. Three groups of speakers were compared, all of whom were highly proficient Spanish-English bilinguals who differed with respect to the contexts in which they used the two languages in their everyday lives. They performed two lexical production tasks and the "AX" variant of the Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT), a nonlinguistic measure of cognitive control. Results showed that lexical access in each language, and how it related to cognitive control ability, depended on whether bilinguals used their languages separately or interchangeably or whether they were immersed in their second language. These findings suggest that even highly proficient bilinguals who speak the same languages are not necessarily alike in the way in which they engage cognitive resources. Findings support recent proposals that being bilingual does not, in itself, identify a unique pattern of cognitive control. An important implication is that much of the controversy that currently surrounds the consequences of bilingualism may be understood, in part, as a failure to characterize the complexity associated with the context of language use. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Judith F Kroll
- Department of Language Science, University of California, Irvine
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
López Zunini RA, Morrison C, Kousaie S, Taler V. Task switching and bilingualism in young and older adults: A behavioral and electrophysiological investigation. Neuropsychologia 2019; 133:107186. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
36
|
Armstrong BA, Ein N, Wong BI, Gallant SN, Li L. Retracted: The Effect of Bilingualism on Older Adults' Inhibitory Control: A Meta-Analysis. THE GERONTOLOGIST 2019; 61:e102-e117. [PMID: 31291456 DOI: 10.1093/geront/gnz086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES The effect bilingualism has on older adults' inhibitory control has been extensively investigated, yet there is continued controversy regarding whether older adult bilinguals show superior inhibitory control compared with monolinguals. The objective of the current meta-analysis was to examine the reliability and magnitude of the bilingualism effect on older adults' inhibitory control as measured by the Simon and Stroop tasks. In addition, we examined whether individual characteristics moderate the bilingual advantage in inhibition, including age (young-old vs old-old), age of second language acquisition, immigrant status, language proficiency, and frequency of language use. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS A total of 22 samples for the Simon task and 14 samples for the Stroop task were derived from 28 published and unpublished articles (32 independent samples, with 4 of these samples using more than 1 task) and were analyzed in 2 separate meta-analyses. RESULTS Analyses revealed a reliable effect of bilingualism on older adults' performance on the Simon (g = 0.60) and Stroop (g = 0.27) tasks. Interestingly, individual characteristics did not moderate the association between bilingualism and older adults' inhibitory control. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS The results suggest there is a bilingual advantage in inhibitory control for older bilinguals compared with older monolinguals, regardless of the individual characteristics previously thought to moderate this effect. Based on these findings, bilingualism may protect inhibitory control from normal cognitive decline with age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalie Ein
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Brenda I Wong
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Sara N Gallant
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
| | - Lingqian Li
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Hayakawa S, Marian V. Consequences of multilingualism for neural architecture. Behav Brain Funct 2019; 15:6. [PMID: 30909931 PMCID: PMC6432751 DOI: 10.1186/s12993-019-0157-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Language has the power to shape cognition, behavior, and even the form and function of the brain. Technological and scientific developments have recently yielded an increasingly diverse set of tools with which to study the way language changes neural structures and processes. Here, we review research investigating the consequences of multilingualism as revealed by brain imaging. A key feature of multilingual cognition is that two or more languages can become activated at the same time, requiring mechanisms to control interference. Consequently, extensive experience managing multiple languages can influence cognitive processes as well as their neural correlates. We begin with a brief discussion of how bilinguals activate language, and of the brain regions implicated in resolving language conflict. We then review evidence for the pervasive impact of bilingual experience on the function and structure of neural networks that support linguistic and non-linguistic cognitive control, speech processing and production, and language learning. We conclude that even seemingly distinct effects of language on cognitive operations likely arise from interdependent functions, and that future work directly exploring the interactions between multiple levels of processing could offer a more comprehensive view of how language molds the mind.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sayuri Hayakawa
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, 2240 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Viorica Marian
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, 2240 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
van den Noort M, Struys E, Bosch P, Jaswetz L, Perriard B, Yeo S, Barisch P, Vermeire K, Lee SH, Lim S. Does the Bilingual Advantage in Cognitive Control Exist and If So, What Are Its Modulating Factors? A Systematic Review. Behav Sci (Basel) 2019; 9:E27. [PMID: 30871228 PMCID: PMC6466577 DOI: 10.3390/bs9030027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, doubts were raised about the existence of the bilingual advantage in cognitive control. The aim of the present review was to investigate the bilingual advantage and its modulating factors. We searched the Medline, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and ERIC databases for all original data and reviewed studies on bilingualism and cognitive control, with a cut-off date of 31 October 2018, thereby following the guidelines of the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) protocol. The results of the 46 original studies show that indeed, the majority, 54.3%, reported beneficial effects of bilingualism on cognitive control tasks; however, 28.3% found mixed results and 17.4% found evidence against its existence. Methodological differences seem to explain these mixed results: Particularly, the varying selection of the bilingual participants, the use of nonstandardized tests, and the fact that individual differences were often neglected and that longitudinal designs were rare. Therefore, a serious risk for bias exists in both directions (i.e., in favor of and against the bilingual advantage). To conclude, we found some evidence for a bilingual advantage in cognitive control; however, if significant progress is to be made, better study designs, bigger data, and more longitudinal studies are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maurits van den Noort
- Research Group of Pain and Neuroscience, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea.
- Brussels Institute for Applied Linguistics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Esli Struys
- Brussels Institute for Applied Linguistics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Peggy Bosch
- Psychiatric Research Group, LVR-Klinik Bedburg-Hau, 47511 Bedburg-Hau, Germany.
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6525 Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Lars Jaswetz
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, 6525 Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Benoît Perriard
- Department of Medicine, Neurology, University of Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - Sujung Yeo
- College of Oriental Medicine, Sang Ji University, Wonju 26339, Korea.
| | - Pia Barisch
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Katrien Vermeire
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Long Island University (LIU) Brooklyn, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA.
| | - Sook-Hyun Lee
- Research Group of Pain and Neuroscience, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea.
| | - Sabina Lim
- Research Group of Pain and Neuroscience, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Fricke M, Zirnstein M, Navarro-Torres C, Kroll JF. Bilingualism reveals fundamental variation in language processing. BILINGUALISM (CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND) 2019; 22:200-207. [PMID: 30636922 PMCID: PMC6328260 DOI: 10.1017/s1366728918000482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Although variation in the ways individuals process language has long been a topic of interest and discussion in the psycholinguistic literature, only recently have studies of bilingualism and its cognitive consequences begun to reveal the fundamental dynamics between language and cognition. We argue that the active use of two languages provides a lens through which the interactions between language use, language processing, and the contexts in which these take place can be fully understood. Far from bilingualism being considered a special case, it may provide the common basis upon which the principles of language learning and use can be modeled.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Megan Zirnstein
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside
| | | | - Judith F. Kroll
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Incera S. Measuring the Timing of the Bilingual Advantage. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1983. [PMID: 30459677 PMCID: PMC6232690 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Empirical evidence has supported the idea that the bilingual advantage is a question of nuanced differences between bilinguals and monolinguals. In this article, I review findings from studies using eye tracking, mouse tracking, and event-related potentials (ERPs) which are particularly suited to measure time. Understanding the timing of the processes underlying executive function is crucial in evaluating the intricacies of the bilingual mind. Furthermore, I provide recommendations on how to best use these timing techniques to compare bilinguals and monolinguals. Temporal differences can characterize ongoing discussions of the bilingual advantage and help explain conflicting findings. Methodological and analytical innovations to better investigate the timing of the cognitive processes at play will inform a wide range of areas in cognitive science.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Incera
- Multilingual Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Hsieh SS, Huang CJ, Wu CT, Chang YK, Hung TM. Acute Exercise Facilitates the N450 Inhibition Marker and P3 Attention Marker during Stroop Test in Young and Older Adults. J Clin Med 2018; 7:E391. [PMID: 30373181 PMCID: PMC6262533 DOI: 10.3390/jcm7110391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
While considerable evidence supporting the positive influence of acute exercise on cognitive inhibition, little is known regarding the underlying cognitive processes. There is also little neuroelectric evidence regarding the effects on older adults of acute exercise-elicited cognitive benefits. Thus, our objective was to explore the possible neural markers underlying improved cognitive inhibition, with particular attention to the N450 and P3 components, following acute exercise. Another aim was to investigate whether cognitive gains seen in young adults are replicated in older adults. Twenty-four young males and 20 older males underwent either a single bout of aerobic exercise or video-watching in counterbalanced order. Afterwards, cognitive inhibition was assessed by the Stroop test. Results revealed that acute exercise resulted in shorter response time regardless of age or congruency. Regarding the neuroeletric data, acute exercise resulted in larger P3 amplitude and smaller N450 amplitude regardless of congruency or age. Further, following exercise, changes in response time interference were correlated with changes in incongruent N450 amplitude. Collectively, acute exercise-facilitated conflict monitoring and attention control, as signified by the N450 and P3 components, may be the underlying processes leading to better Stroop performance, with conflict monitoring having a stronger association with task performance. Further, cognitive gains resulting from acute exercise were found to the same extent in both young and older adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Shih Hsieh
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Chung-Ju Huang
- Graduate Institute of Sports Pedagogy, University of Taipei, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Chien-Ting Wu
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of South Carolina Upstate, 800 University Way, Spartanburg, SC 29303, USA.
| | - Yu-Kai Chang
- Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Tsung-Min Hung
- Department of Physical Education & Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Takahesu Tabori AA, Mech EN, Atagi N. Exploiting Language Variation to Better Understand the Cognitive Consequences of Bilingualism. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1686. [PMID: 30245660 PMCID: PMC6137614 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the past decade, there has been an explosion of research investigating the cognitive consequences of bilingualism. However, a controversy has arisen specifically involving research claiming a "bilingual advantage" in executive function. In this brief review, we re-examine the nature of the "bilingual advantage" and suggest three themes for future research. First, there must be a theoretical account of how specific variation in language experience impacts aspects of executive function and domain general cognition. Second, efforts toward adequately characterizing the participants tested will be critical to interpreting results. Finally, designing studies that employ converging analytical approaches and sensitive methodologies will be important to advance our knowledge of the dynamics between bilingual language experience and cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Natsuki Atagi
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Papageorgiou A, Bright P, Periche Tomas E, Filippi R. Evidence against a cognitive advantage in the older bilingual population. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 72:1354-1363. [PMID: 30081734 DOI: 10.1177/1747021818796475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence has challenged long-standing claims that multi-language acquisition confers long-term advantages in executive function and may protect against age-related cognitive deterioration. We assessed evidence for a bilingual advantage in older monolingual and bilingual residents matched on age, gender, and socioeconomic status. A comprehensive battery of tests was administered to measure non-verbal reasoning, working memory capacity, visuo-spatial memory, response inhibition, problem solving, and language proficiency. Analyses, including Bayes factors, revealed comparable performance in both groups, with no significant differences on any task (and the only trend, found for the Tower of London task performance, indicated a monolingual advantage). Overall, therefore, our findings run counter to the bilingual advantage hypothesis. We consider the implications of our study and offer suggestions for future work in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Roberto Filippi
- 1 Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Klimova B. Learning a Foreign Language: A Review on Recent Findings About Its Effect on the Enhancement of Cognitive Functions Among Healthy Older Individuals. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:305. [PMID: 30104969 PMCID: PMC6077199 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is an increasing number of older population groups, especially in developed countries. This demographic trend, however, may cause serious problems, such as an increase in aging diseases, one of which is dementia whose main symptom consists in the decline of cognitive functioning. Although there has been ongoing pharmacological research on this neurological disorder, it has not brought satisfying results as far as its treatment is concerned. Therefore, governments all over the world are trying to develop alternative, non-pharmacological strategies/activities, which could help to prevent this cognitive decline while this aging population is still healthy in order to reduce future economic and social burden. One of the non-pharmacological approaches, which may enhance cognitive abilities and protect against the decline in healthy older population, seems to be the learning of a foreign language. The purpose of this mini-review article is to discuss recent findings about the effect of foreign language learning on the enhancement of cognitive functions among healthy older individuals. The findings, divided into three research areas, show that the learning of a foreign language may generate a lot of benefits for older individuals, such as enhancement of cognitive functioning, their self-esteem, increased opportunities of socializing, or reduction of costs. However, as Ware et al. (2017) indicate, any intervention program on foreign language learning should be well thought of and tailored to the needs of older people in order to be effective and avoid accompanying factors, such as older people’s anxiety or low self-confidence. Nevertheless, more empirical studies should be done in this area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Blanka Klimova
- Department of Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Králové, Hradec Králové, Czechia
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Pavarini SCI, Brigola AG, Luchesi BM, Souza ÉN, Rossetti ES, Fraga FJ, Guarisco LPC, Terassi M, Oliveira NA, Hortense P, Pedroso RV, Ottaviani AC. On the use of the P300 as a tool for cognitive processing assessment in healthy aging: A review. Dement Neuropsychol 2018; 12:1-11. [PMID: 29682227 PMCID: PMC5901243 DOI: 10.1590/1980-57642018dn12-010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in patterns of performance for the cognitive functions of memory, processing speed, and focused attention are expected in old age.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Cristina Iost Pavarini
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.,PhD, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Gerontology, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.,PhD, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Gerontology Department, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Allan Gustavo Brigola
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Bruna Moretti Luchesi
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Érica Nestor Souza
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Francisco José Fraga
- PhD, Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Engineering, Modeling and Applied Social Sciences Center (CECS), Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Marélli Terassi
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Nathalia Alves Oliveira
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Priscilla Hortense
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Renata Valle Pedroso
- PhD, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Physical Activity and Aging Lab, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Ottaviani
- MS, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Graduate Program in Nursing, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Kousaie S, Chai XJ, Sander KM, Klein D. Simultaneous learning of two languages from birth positively impacts intrinsic functional connectivity and cognitive control. Brain Cogn 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
47
|
Incera S, McLennan CT. Bilingualism and age are continuous variables that influence executive function. AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2017; 25:443-463. [PMID: 28436757 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2017.1319902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the effects of bilingualism and age on executive function. We examined these variables along a continuum, as opposed to dichotomizing them. We investigated the impact that bilingualism and age have on two measures of executive control (Stroop and Flanker). The mouse-tracking paradigm allowed us to examine the continuous dynamics of the responses as participants completed each trial. First, we found that the Stroop effect was reduced with younger age and higher levels of bilingualism; however, no Bilingualism by Age interaction emerged. Second, after controlling for baseline, the Flanker effect was not influenced by bilingualism or age. These results support the notion that bilingualism is one way of enhancing some aspects of executive function - specifically those related to the Stroop task - across the adult life span. In sum, different levels of bilingualism, and different ages, result in varying degrees of executive function as measured by the Stroop task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Incera
- a Language Research Laboratory, Department of Psychology , Cleveland State University , Cleveland , Ohio , USA.,b Department of Psychology , Eastern Kentucky University , Richmond , Kentucky , USA
| | - Conor T McLennan
- a Language Research Laboratory, Department of Psychology , Cleveland State University , Cleveland , Ohio , USA
| |
Collapse
|