Ephrin-A5 modulates the topographic mapping and connectivity of commissural axons in murine hippocampus

EFNA5 suppresses cell proliferation and tumor metastasis in hepatoma via epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

BACKGROUND

EphrinA5 belongs to a subclass of ephrin ligands. Abnormal signal transduction of EFNA5 shows a relationship to the development of various tumors. In this study, we explored the level of EFNA5 in hepatoma cells and the influence of up regulation of EFNA5 expression level on the proliferation, invasion, and migration of HepG2 and LM3 cells. Additionally, this work focused on examining its possible mechanism of action, and future impacts on clinical practice.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was utilized to explore the connection between EFNA5 and hepatoma. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used for determining the expression levels of EFNA5 in several hepatoma cell lines and normal hepatocytes. Cells were transfected with a pCMV3-EFNA5-flag plasmid and an EFNA5 plasmid. The expression efficiency of EFNA5 was identified through qRT-PCR. For the purpose of further identifying cell proliferation, the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was applied. To identify changes of cell migration and invasion ability, Transwell and Boyden tests were utilized. Western blot was employed to identify the expressions mof EFNA5 and possible downstream molecules.

RESULTS

Data acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas demonstrated that the level of EFNA5 in hepatoma was significantly downregulated in relative to the normal hepatocytes (P < 0.05). Upregulation of EFNA5 expression in hepatoma cells hindered the proliferative, invasive, and migratory ability of cells (P < 0.05). Additionally, EFNA5 downregulated the level of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related molecules and EGFR.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of EFNA5 was low in hepatoma cells. An increase in EFNA5 levels hinders the proliferation, invasion, and migration of hepatoma cells. These effects may occur through inhibition of hepatoma epithelial-mesenchymal transition by EFNA5. Moreover, the study on the mechanisms of proliferation, invasion and metastasis of hepatoma provides a novel theoretical basis, and may influence the clinical practice of tumor treatment in the future.

Ephrin-A5 Is Involved in Retinal Neovascularization in a Mouse Model of Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy

Retinal neovascularization (RNV) is an important pathological feature of vitreoretinopathy that can lead to severe vision loss. The purpose of this study was to identify the role of ephrin-A5 (Efna5) in RNV and to explore its mechanism. The expression pattern and biological significance of Efna5 were investigated in a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). The expression of Efna5 and downstream signaling pathway members was determined by RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and western blot analyses. shRNA was used to knockdown Efna5 in the retina of the OIR mouse model. Retinal flat mounts were performed to evaluate the impact of Efna5 silencing on the RNV process. We found that the Efna5 was greatly upregulated in the retina of OIR mice. Elevated Efna5 mainly colocalized with the retinal vessels and endothelial cells. We then showed that knockdown of Efna5 in OIR mouse retinas using lentivirus-mediated shRNA markedly decreased the expression of Efna5 and reduced the retinal neovascularization and avascular retina area. We further showed hypoxia stimulation dramatically increased both total and phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 and the phosphorylation levels of Akt in OIR mice. More importantly, knockdown of Efna5 could inhibit the p-Akt and p-ERK signaling pathways. Our results suggested that Efna5 may regulate the RNV. This study suggests that Efna5 was significantly upregulated in the retina of OIR mice and closely involved in the pathological retinal angiogenesis.

Presenilin/γ-secretase-dependent EphA3 processing mediates axon elongation through non-muscle myosin IIA

EphA/ephrin signaling regulates axon growth and guidance of neurons, but whether this process occurs also independently of ephrins is unclear. We show that presenilin-1 (PS1)/γ-secretase is required for axon growth in the developing mouse brain. PS1/γ-secretase mediates axon growth by inhibiting RhoA signaling and cleaving EphA3 independently of ligand to generate an intracellular domain (ICD) fragment that reverses axon defects in PS1/γ-secretase- and EphA3-deficient hippocampal neurons. Proteomic analysis revealed that EphA3 ICD binds to non-muscle myosin IIA (NMIIA) and increases its phosphorylation (Ser1943), which promotes NMIIA filament disassembly and cytoskeleton rearrangement. PS1/γ-secretase-deficient neurons show decreased phosphorylated NMIIA and NMIIA/actin colocalization. Moreover, pharmacological NMII inhibition reverses axon retraction in PS-deficient neurons suggesting that NMIIA mediates PS/EphA3-dependent axon elongation. In conclusion, PS/γ-secretase-dependent EphA3 cleavage mediates axon growth by regulating filament assembly through RhoA signaling and NMIIA, suggesting opposite roles of EphA3 on inhibiting (ligand-dependent) and promoting (receptor processing) axon growth in developing neurons.

Functions of Plexins/Neuropilins and Their Ligands during Hippocampal Development and Neurodegeneration

There is emerging evidence that molecules, receptors, and signaling mechanisms involved in vascular development also play crucial roles during the development of the nervous system. Among others, specific semaphorins and their receptors (neuropilins and plexins) have, in recent years, attracted the attention of researchers due to their pleiotropy of functions. Their functions, mainly associated with control of the cellular cytoskeleton, include control of cell migration, cell morphology, and synapse remodeling. Here, we will focus on their roles in the hippocampal formation that plays a crucial role in memory and learning as it is a prime target during neurodegeneration.

The chemorepellent draxin is involved in hippocampal mossy fiber projection

Lamina-specific afferent innervation of the mammalian hippocampus is critical for its function. We investigated the relevance of the chemorepellent draxin to the laminar projections of three principal hippocampal afferents: mossy fibers, entorhinal, and associational/commissural fibers. We observed that draxin deficiency led to abnormal projection of mossy fibers but not other afferents. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that draxin is expressed in the dentate gyrus and cornu ammonis (CA) 3 at postnatal day 0, when dentate granule cells begin to extend mossy fibers towards CA3. Furthermore, a neurite growth assay using dissociated cells of the neonatal dentate gyrus revealed that draxin inhibited the growth of calbindin-D28k-expressing mossy fibers in vitro. Taken together, we conclude that draxin is a key molecule in the regulation of mossy fiber projections.

[Changes in the expression of EphA5/ephrinA5 in the CA3 region of the hippocampus in rats with epilepsy and their role in the pathogenesis of temporal lobe epilepsy]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the changes in the expression of EphA5 and its ligand ephrinA5 in the hippocampus of rats with epilepsy and their role in the pathogenesis of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE).

METHODS

A total of 240 Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control group and TLE group, with 120 rats in each group. A rat model of lithium-pilocarpine TLE was established, and then the rats were divided into subgroups at 12 and 24 hours and 7, 15, 30, and 60 days after epilepsy was induced. In-situ hybridization was used to measure the mRNA expression of ephrinA5 in the CA3 region and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in 9 rats; immunohistochemistry was used to measure the protein expression of EphA5 in the CA3 region and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in 9 rats; Neo-Timm silver staining was used to observe mossy fiber sprouting in the CA3 region of the hippocampus in 2 rats.

RESULTS

In-situ hybridization showed mRNA expression of ephrinA5 in the CA3 region of the hippocampus, but this was not found in the dentate gyrus. Compared with the control group at the same time point, the TLE group had a significant reduction in the mRNA expression of ephrinA5 in the CA3 region of the hippocampus at 7 and 15 days after epilepsy was induced (P<0.05); at 30 and 60 days after epilepsy was induced, the TLE group had a gradual increase in the mRNA expression of ephrinA5 in the CA3 region of the hippocampus, and there was no significant difference between the TLE and control groups (P>0.05). Immunohistochemistry showed that EphA5 protein was expressed in the CA3 region and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and had a similar trend of change as ephrinA5 mRNA. Neo-Timm silver staining showed that the TLE group developed marked mossy fiber sprouting in the CA3 region of the hippocampus at 7 and 15 days after epilepsy was induced.

CONCLUSIONS

Downregulation of ephrinA5 and EphA5 in the CA3 region of the hippocampus may participate in the mechanism of mossy fiber sprouting and is closely associated with the development and progression of epilepsy.

Receptor tyrosine kinase EphA7 is required for interneuron connectivity at specific subcellular compartments of granule cells

Neuronal transmission is regulated by the local circuitry which is composed of principal neurons targeted at different subcellular compartments by a variety of interneurons. However, mechanisms that contribute to the subcellular localisation and maintenance of GABAergic interneuron terminals are poorly understood. Stabilization of GABAergic synapses depends on clustering of the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin and its interaction with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor collybistin. Lentiviral knockdown experiments in adult rats indicated that the receptor tyrosine kinase EphA7 is required for the stabilisation of basket cell terminals on proximal dendritic and somatic compartments of granular cells of the dentate gyrus. EphA7 deficiency and concomitant destabilisation of GABAergic synapses correlated with impaired long-term potentiation and reduced hippocampal learning. Reduced GABAergic innervation may be explained by an impact of EphA7 on gephyrin clustering. Overexpression or ephrin stimulation of EphA7 induced gephyrin clustering dependent on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) which is an interaction partner of gephyrin. Gephyrin interactions with mTOR become released after mTOR activation while enhanced interaction with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor collybistin was observed in parallel. In conclusion, EphA7 regulates gephyrin clustering and the maintenance of inhibitory synaptic connectivity via mTOR signalling.

Eph receptors: new players in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is devastating and leads to permanent losses of memory and other cognitive functions. Although recent genetic evidences strongly argue for a causative role of Aβ in AD onset and progression (Jonsson et al., 2012), its role in AD etiology remains a matter of debate. However, even if not the sole culprit or pathological trigger, genetic and anatomical evidences in conjunction with numerous pharmacological studies, suggest that Aβ peptides, at least contribute to the disease. How Aβ contributes to memory loss remains largely unknown. Soluble Aβ species referred to as Aβ oligomers have been shown to be neurotoxic and induce network failure and cognitive deficits in animal models of the disease. In recent years, several proteins were described as potential Aβ oligomers receptors, amongst which are the receptor tyrosine kinases of Eph family. These receptors together with their natural ligands referred to as ephrins have been involved in a plethora of physiological and pathological processes, including embryonic neurogenesis, learning and memory, diabetes, cancers and anxiety. Here we review recent discoveries on Eph receptors-mediated protection against Aβ oligomers neurotoxicity as well as their potential as therapeutic targets in AD pathogenesis.

Auditory brainstem responses of ephrin-A2, ephrin-A5(-/-) and ephrin-A2A5(-/-) mice

Eph receptors and ephrin ligands are large families of cell surface proteins which have established roles in axonal growth and guidance. These are well characterized in the visual and somatosensory systems but are less well documented in the auditory pathway. We examined the possible functional role of two ephrin genes (ephrin-A2 and ephrin-A5) in the auditory system by measuring auditory brainstem responses (ABR) to tone bursts from 6 to 30 kHz in ephrin-A2(-/-), ephrin-A5(-/-) and ephrin-A2A5(-/-) (knockout) mice. At high frequencies, the ephrin-A2A5(-/-) mice exhibited thresholds that were significantly lower than in wild-type mice by approximately 20 dB, suggesting ephrin-A2 and ephrin-A5 may have frequency-specific effects on the auditory system. There were also alterations in ABR wave peak amplitudes that were specific to each mouse strain which suggested both peripheral and central involvement of EphA-ephrin-A signalling in auditory function.

Increased EphA/ephrinA expression in hippocampus of pilocarpine treated mouse

PURPOSE

EphA family receptor tyrosine kinases and their ephrinA ligands are involved in patterning axonal connections during brain development. Although it has been evidenced that these molecules continue to play a key role in synaptic reorganization and plasticity in normal and injured adult brains, their effect still remains unclear during epileptogenesis. Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of adult focal epilepsy and often associates with sclerosis of the hippocampus and mossy fiber sprouting (MFS). The purpose of this study is to evaluate the relationship between EphA/ephrinA molecules and epileptogenesis after status epilepticus (SE).

METHOD

A mouse model of chronic temporal lobe epilepsy was prepared by intraperitoneal administration of pilocarpine. EphAs/ephrinAs expression levels of the mouse hippocampus areas were detected at different time points after SE by PCR, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Mossy fiber sprouting was estimated by Neo-Timm staining.

RESULT

EphAs/ephrinAs were widely distributed in the hippocampus area. EphA10 and ephrinA4 were increased significantly following epileptogenesis, and mossy fiber sprouting appeared after SE.

CONCLUSION

The up-regulation of EphA/ephrinA expression after SE suggests that they are involved in the pilocarpine-induced epileptogenesis.

The expression changes of EphA3 receptor during synaptic plasticity in mouse hippocampus through activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

We have reported that systemic application of nicotinic agonists results in expression of a long-term potentiation-like facilitation, a model of synaptic plasticity, in the mouse hippocampus in vivo. Eph receptors and their ephrin ligands, are thought to participate in synaptic plasticity. The present study was conducted to clarify the involvement of EphA3 receptor in synaptic plasticity by investigating the time-dependent change of the expression levels of EphA3 receptor during long-term potentiation-like facilitation in the mouse hippocampus. EphA3 receptor mRNA and protein expression was found in adult mouse hippocampus. EphA3 receptor was localized in neuronal cells but not astrocytes or microglia of hippocampus. After intraperitoneal application of nicotine (3 mg/kg), the protein expression of EphA3 receptor in hippocampus increased during 2-24-h period, significantly increasing during 2-12-h period, and finally returned to the basal level in 72 h, although the mRNA expression of EphA3 receptor was not changed for 24 h. This enhanced expression of EphA3 receptor protein at 4 h was inhibited by pretreatment of mecamylamine (0.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), a nonselective nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist. Our findings demonstrated that EphA3 receptor localized only in neuronal cells of the hippocampus was enhanced without transcriptional regulation during synaptic plasticity through activation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. These results suggest that the enhancement of EphA3 receptor after synaptic plasticity may contribute to long-lasting synaptic plasticity through positive, feedforward mechanisms.

EphA activation overrides the presynaptic actions of BDNF

The adult pattern of neural connectivity is shaped by repulsive and attractive factors, many of which are modulated by activity. Although much is known about the actions of these factors when studied in isolation, little is known about how they interact. To address this question, we examined the effects of sequential or coapplication of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Fc-conjugated ephrin-A5 or EphA5 in cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons. BDNF promotes neurite outgrowth and synapse formation, and when applied acutely, it elicits an increase in ongoing synaptic activity. Members of the ephrin family of ligands and receptors can be repulsive and prevent formation of synaptic contacts. Acute exposure to either ephrin-A5-Fc or EphA5-Fc transiently enhanced synaptic activity when applied alone, but when applied prior to BDNF, they dramatically reduced the electrophysiological effects of the neurotrophin. Conversely, BDNF had no effect on subsequently applied ephrin-A5-Fc or EphA5-Fc. Consistent with this, ephrin-A5-Fc also prevented BDNF-induced activation of p42/44 MAPK. The effect of ephrin-A5-Fc appears to be presynaptic, as it prevented the BDNF-induced increase in spontaneous miniature postsynaptic current frequency, whereas EphA5-Fc did not. These results suggest that these factors can be categorized differently, with the contact-mediated activation of EphA receptors by ephrin-A5 overriding the diffusion-mediated effect of BDNF.

Impaired hippocampal neurogenesis and vascular formation in ephrin-A5-deficient mice

Neurogenesis occurs throughout the life in the mammalian brain. The hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) is one of the major regions of the adult neurogenesis, where neural stem/progenitor cells continuously generate new granule neurons, although molecular mechanisms underlying generation and maintenance of newly born neurons are still elusive. Here we show that ephrin-A5, a ligand for Eph receptor tyrosine kinases, plays multiple roles in both neurogenesis and vascular formation in the adult hippocampus. In mice lacking ephrin-A5 function, cell proliferation and survival of newborn neurons were severely reduced in the hippocampus DG. Furthermore, ephrin-A5-deficient mice exhibited altered distribution of EphA4 receptor in the vascular endothelial cells and increased narrower capillaries in the hippocampus DG. EphA/ephrin-A signaling thus plays crucial roles in the establishment and/or maintenance of the brain vascular system, as an essential constituent of the adult neurogenic niche.

A role for DNA methylation in regulation of EphA5 receptor expression in the mouse retina

Understanding the mechanisms regulating expression of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) specific and axon-guidance genes during development and in retinal stem cells will be critical for successful optic nerve regeneration. Müller glia have some characteristics of retinal stem cells but in mammals have demonstrated limited potential to differentiate into RGCs. Chromatin remodeling through histone deacetylation and DNA methylation are a potential mechanism for silencing genes necessary for neuronal differentiation of glial cells. We investigated DNA methylation as a mechanism for regulating expression of mouse EphA5, one member of a large family of ephrin receptor genes that regulate patterning of the topographic connections of RGCs during visual system development. We analyzed spatial and age-related patterns of EphA5 promoter methylation by bisulfite sequencing and mRNA expression by quantitative RT-PCR in the mouse retina. The CpG island in the EphA5 promoter was hypomethylated in the retina and showed no change in overall methylation with age, despite a decline in EphA5 mRNA expression levels in the adult retina. In the nasal retina of post-natal day 0 mice, there was a modest, but statistically significant increase in methylation. Increased methylation corresponded with lower levels of receptor mRNA expression in the nasal retina. We cloned the EphA5 promoter and found that site-specific differences in methylation could preferentially activate or repress promoter activity in transient transfections of rat retinal progenitor cells (R28) using luciferase assays. In sphere cultures generated by EGF/FGF2 stimulation of conditionally immortalized mouse Müller glia (ImM10), EphA5 promoter was hypermethylated and EphA5 mRNA was not detected. Demethylation using 5-azadeoxycytidine (AzadC) resulted in a significant decrease of methylation of the EphA5 promoter and re-expression of the EphA5 mRNA. The inverse relationship between EphA5 promoter methylation and mRNA expression is consistent with a role for DNA methylation in modulating the spatial patterns of EphA5 gene expression in the retina and in silencing EphA5 expression in ImM10 cells. The robust up-regulation of EphA5 in ImM10 cells following demethylation suggests that modulation of chromatin structure may be a useful approach for promoting expression of silenced developmental genes and increasing the neurogenic potential of Müller glia.

EphrinA5 protein distribution in the developing mouse brain

Background

EphrinA5 is one of the best-studied members of the Eph-ephrin family of guidance molecules, known to be involved in brain developmental processes. Using in situ hybridization, ephrinA5 mRNA expression has been detected in the retinotectal, the thalamocortical, and the olfactory systems; however, no study focused on the distribution of the protein. Considering that this membrane-anchored molecule may act far from the neuron soma expressing the transcript, it is of a crucial interest to localize ephrinA5 protein to better understand its function.

Results

Using immunohistochemistry, we found that ephrinA5 protein is highly expressed in the developing mouse brain from E12.5 to E16.5. The olfactory bulb, the cortex, the striatum, the thalamus, and the colliculi showed high intensity of labelling, suggesting its implication in topographic mapping of olfactory, retinocollicular, thalamocortical, corticothalamic and mesostriatal systems. In the olfactory nerve, we found an early ephrinA5 protein expression at E12.5 suggesting its implication in the guidance of primary olfactory neurons into the olfactory bulb. In the thalamus, we detected a dynamic graduated protein expression, suggesting its role in the corticothalamic patterning, whereas ephrinA5 protein expression in the target region of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurones indicated its involvement in the mesostriatal topographic mapping. Following E16.5, the signal faded gradually and was barely detectable at P0, suggesting a main role for ephrinA5 in primary molecular events in topographic map formation.

Conclusion

Our work shows that ephrinA5 protein is expressed in restrictive regions of the developing mouse brain. This expression pattern points out the potential sites of action of this molecule in the olfactory, retinotectal, thalamocortical, corticothalamic and mesostriatal systems, during development. This study is essential to better understand the role of ephrinA5 during developmental topographic mapping of connections and to further characterise the mechanisms involved in pathway restoration following cell transplantation in the damaged brain.

Roles of semaphorin-6B and plexin-A2 in lamina-restricted projection of hippocampal mossy fibers

Hippocampal mossy fibers project preferentially to the proximal-most lamina of the suprapyramidal region of CA3, the stratum lucidum, and proximal-most parts of the infrapyrmidal region of CA3c. Molecular mechanisms that govern the lamina-restricted projection of mossy fibers, however, have not been fully understood. We previously studied functions of neural repellent Semaphorin-6A (Sema6A), a class 6 transmembrane semaphorin, and its receptors, plexin-A2 (PlxnA2) and PlxnA4, in mossy fiber projection and have proposed that PlxnA4-expressing mossy fibers are principally prevented from entering the Sema6A-expressing suprapyramidal and infrapyramidal regions of CA3 but are permitted to grow into proximal parts of the regions, where repulsive activity of Sema6A is competitively suppressed by PlxnA2 (Suto et al., 2007). In the present study we demonstrate that Sema6B, another class 6 transmembrane semaphorin, is expressed in CA3 and repels mossy fibers in a PlxnA4-dependent manner in vitro. In Sema6B-deficient mice several mossy fibers aberrantly project to the stratum radiatum and the stratum oriens. The number of aberrant mossy fibers is increased in Sema6A;Sema6B double knock-out mice, indicating that Sema6A and Sema6B function additively to regulate proper projection of mossy fibers. PlxnA2 does not suppress the Sema6B response, but itself promotes growth of mossy fibers. Based on these results, we propose that the balance between mossy fiber repulsion by Sema6A and Sema6B and attraction by PlxnA2 and unknown molecule(s) prescribes the areas permissive for mossy fibers to innervate.

Developmental course of EphA4 cellular and subcellular localization in the postnatal rat hippocampus

From embryonic development to adulthood, the EphA4 receptor and several of its ephrin-A or -B ligands are expressed in the hippocampus, where they presumably play distinct roles at different developmental stages. To help clarify these diverse roles in the assembly and function of the hippocampus, we examined the cellular and subcellular localization of EphA4 in postnatal rat hippocampus by light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry. On postnatal day (P) 1, the EphA4 immunostaining was robust in most layers of CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus and then decreased gradually, until P21, especially in the cell body layers. At the ultrastructural level, focal spots of EphA4 immunoreactivity were detected all over the plasma membrane of pyramidal and granule cells, between P1 and P14, from the perikarya to the dendritic and axonal extremities, including growth cones and filopodia. This cell surface immunoreactivity then became restricted to the synapse-associated dendritic spines and axon terminals by P21. In astrocytes, the EphA4 immunolabeling showed a similar cell surface redistribution, from the perikarya and large processes at P1-P7, to small perisynaptic processes at P14-P21. In both cell types, spots of EphA4 immunoreactivity were also detected, with an incidence decreasing with maturation, on the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles, organelles involved in protein synthesis, posttranslational modifications, and transport. The cell surface evolution of EphA4 localization in neuronal and glial cells is consistent with successive involvements in the developmental movements of cell bodies first, followed by process outgrowth and guidance, synaptogenesis, and finally synaptic maintenance and plasticity.

A TrkB/EphrinA interaction controls retinal axon branching and synaptogenesis

Toward understanding topographically specific branching of retinal axons in their target area, we have studied the interaction between neurotrophin receptors and members of the Eph family. TrkB and its ligand BDNF are uniformly expressed in the retina and tectum, respectively, and exert a branch-promoting activity, whereas EphAs and ephrinAs are expressed in gradients in retina and tectum and can mediate a suppression of axonal branching. We have identified a novel cis interaction between ephrinA5 and TrkB on retinal ganglion cell axons. TrkB interacts with ephrinA5 via its second cysteine-rich domain (CC2), which is necessary and sufficient for binding to ephrinA5. Their functional interaction is twofold: ephrinA5 augments BDNF-promoted retinal axon branching in the absence of its activator EphA7-Fc, whereas EphA7-Fc application abolishes branching in a local and concentration-dependent manner. The importance of TrkB in this process is shown by the fact that overexpression of an isolated TrkB-CC2 domain interfering with the ephrinA/TrkB interaction abolishes this regulatory interplay, whereas knockdown of TrkB via RNA interference diminishes the ephrinA5-evoked increase in branching. The ephrinA/Trk interaction is neurotrophin induced and specifically augments the PI-3 kinase/Akt pathway generally known to be involved in the promotion of branching. In addition, ephrinAs/TrkB modulate axon branching and also synapse formation of hippocampal neurons. Our findings uncover molecular mechanisms of how spatially restricted axon branching can be achieved by linking globally expressed branch-promoting with differentially expressed branch-suppressing activities. In addition, our data suggest that growth factors and the EphA-ephrinA system interact in a way that affects axon branching and synapse development.

Structural reorganization of the dentate gyrus following entorhinal denervation: species differences between rat and mouse

Deafferentation of the dentate gyrus by unilateral entorhinal cortex lesion or unilateral perforant pathway transection is a classical model to study the response of the central nervous system (CNS) to denervation. This model has been extensively characterized in the rat to clarify mechanisms underlying denervation-induced gliosis, transneuronal degeneration of denervated neurons, and collateral sprouting of surviving axons. As a result, candidate molecules have been identified which could regulate these changes, but a causal link between these molecules and the postlesional changes has not yet been demonstrated. To this end, mutant mice are currently studied by many groups. A tacit assumption is that data from the rat can be generalized to the mouse, and fundamental species differences in hippocampal architecture and the fiber systems involved in sprouting are often ignored. In this review, we will (1) provide an overview of some of the basics and technical aspects of the entorhinal denervation model, (2) identify anatomical species differences between rats and mice and will point out their relevance for the axonal reorganization process, (3) describe glial and local inflammatory changes, (4) consider transneuronal changes of denervated dentate neurons and the potential role of reactive glia in this context, and (5) summarize the differences in the reorganization of the dentate gyrus between the two species. Finally, we will discuss the use of the entorhinal denervation model in mutant mice.

Localization of EphA4 in axon terminals and dendritic spines of adult rat hippocampus

Eph receptors and their ephrin ligands assume various roles during central nervous system development. Several of these proteins are also expressed in the mature brain, and notably in the hippocampus, where EphA4 and ephrins have been shown to influence dendritic spine morphology and long-term potentiation (LTP). To examine the cellular and subcellular localization of EphA4 in adult rat ventral hippocampus, we used light and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry with a specific polyclonal antibody against EphA4. After immunoperoxidase labeling, EphA4 immunoreactivity was found to be enriched in the neuropil layers of CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus. In all examined layers of these regions, myelinated axons, small astrocytic leaflets, unmyelinated axons, dendritic spines, and axon terminals were immunolabeled in increasing order of frequency. Neuronal cell bodies and dendritic branches were immunonegative. EphA4-labeled dendritic spines and axon terminals corresponded to 9-19% and 25-40% of the total number of spines and axon terminals, respectively. Most labeled spines were innervated by unlabeled terminals, but synaptic contacts between two labeled elements were seen. The vast majority of synaptic junctions made by labeled elements was asymmetrical and displayed features of excitatory synapses. Immunogold labeling of EphA4 was located mostly on the plasma membrane of axons, dendritic spines, and axon terminals, supporting its availability for surface interactions with ephrins. The dual preferential labeling of EphA4 on pre- or postsynaptic specializations of excitatory synapses in adult rat hippocampus is consistent with roles for this receptor in synaptic plasticity and LTP.

Bidirectional ephrin/Eph signaling in synaptic functions

Eph receptors, the largest family of receptor tyrosine kinases, and their membrane bound ligands, the ephrins, are involved in multiple developmental and adult processes within and outside of the nervous system. Bi-directional signaling from both the receptor and the ligand is initiated by ephrin-Eph binding upon cell-cell contact, and involves interactions with distinct subsets of downstream signaling molecules related to specific functions. In the CNS, Ephs and ephrins act as attractive/repulsive, migratory and cell adhesive cues during development and participate in synaptic functions in adult animals. In this review, we will focus on recent findings highlighting the functions of ephrin/Eph signaling in dendritic spine morphogenesis, synapse formation and synaptic plasticity.