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Lou ZY, Chen W, Xue WZ, Ding JJ, Yang QQ, Wang HL. Dietary intake of magnesium-l-threonate alleviates memory deficits induced by developmental lead exposure in rats. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra26959a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevation of brain magnesium enhances cognitive capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yi Lou
- School of Food Science and Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- PR China
| | - Weiheng Chen
- School of Life Sciences
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
- PR China
| | - Wei-zhen Xue
- School of Food Science and Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- PR China
| | - Jin-Jun Ding
- School of Food Science and Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- PR China
| | - Qian-Qian Yang
- School of Food Science and Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- PR China
| | - Hui-Li Wang
- School of Food Science and Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- PR China
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β-Asarone Rescues Pb-Induced Impairments of Spatial Memory and Synaptogenesis in Rats. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167401. [PMID: 27936013 PMCID: PMC5147873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic lead (Pb) exposure causes cognitive deficits. This study aimed to explore the neuroprotective effect and mechanism of β-asarone, an active component from Chinese Herbs Acorus tatarinowii Schott, to alleviate impairments of spatial memory and synaptogenesis in Pb-exposed rats. Both Sprague-Dawley developmental rat pups and adult rats were used in the study. Developmental rat pups were exposed to Pb throughout the lactation period and β-asarone (10, 40mg kg-1, respectively) was given intraperitoneally from postnatal day 14 to 21. Also, the adult rats were exposed to Pb from embryo stage to 11 weeks old and β-asarone (2.5, 10, 40mg kg-1, respectively) was given from 9 to 11 weeks old. The level of β-asarone in brain tissue was measured by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. The Morris water maze test and Golgi-Cox staining method were used to assess spatial memory ability and synaptogenesis. The protein expression of NR2B subunit of NMDA receptor, Activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc/Arg3.1) and Wnt family member 7A (Wnt7a) in hippocampus, as well as mRNA expression of Arc/Arg3.1 and Wnt7a, was also explored. We found that β-asarone could pass through the blood brain barrier quickly. And β-asarone effectively attenuated Pb-induced reduction of spine density in hippocampal CA1 and dentate gyrus areas in a dose-dependent manner both in developmental and adult rats, meanwhile the Pb-induced impairments of learning and memory were partially rescued. In addition, β-asarone effectively up-regulated the protein expression of NR2B, Arc and Wnt7a, as well as the mRNA levels of Arc/Arg3.1 and Wnt7a, which had been suppressed by Pb exposure. The results suggest the neuroprotective properties of β-asarone against Pb-induced memory impairments, and the effect is possibly through the regulation of synaptogenesis, which is mediated via Arc/Arg3.1 and Wnt pathway.
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Köbe T, Witte AV, Schnelle A, Grittner U, Tesky VA, Pantel J, Schuchardt JP, Hahn A, Bohlken J, Rujescu D, Flöel A. Vitamin B-12 concentration, memory performance, and hippocampal structure in patients with mild cognitive impairment. Am J Clin Nutr 2016; 103:1045-54. [PMID: 26912492 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.115.116970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low-normal concentrations of vitamin B-12 (VitB12) may be associated with worse cognition. However, previous evidence has been mixed, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. OBJECTIVE We determined whether serum VitB12 concentrations within the normal range were linked to memory functions and related neuronal structures in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). DESIGN In a cross-sectional design, we assessed 100 amnestic MCI patients (52 women; age range: 50-80 y) with low- and high-normal VitB12 concentration (median split: 304 pmol/L) for memory functions with the use of the Auditory Verbal Learning Test. MRI was performed at 3 tesla (n= 86) for the estimation of the volume and microstructure of the hippocampus and its subfields as indicated by the mean diffusivity on diffusion-weighted images. With the use of a mediation analysis, we examined whether the relation between VitB12 and memory performance was partially explained by volume or microstructure. RESULTS MCI patients with low-normal VitB12 showed a significantly poorer learning ability (P= 0.014) and recognition performance (P= 0.008) than did patients with high-normal VitB12. Also, the microstructure integrity of the hippocampus was lower in patients with low-normal VitB12, mainly in the cornu ammonis 4 and dentate gyrus region (P= 0.029), which partially mediated the effect of VitB12 on memory performance (32-48%). Adjustments for age, sex, education, apolipoprotein E e4 status, and total homocysteine, folate, and creatinine did not attenuate the effects. CONCLUSIONS Low VitB12 concentrations within the normal range are associated with poorer memory performance, which is an effect that is partially mediated by the reduced microstructural integrity of the hippocampus. Future interventional trials are needed to assess whether supplementation of VitB12 may improve cognition in MCI patients even in the absence of clinically manifested VitB12 deficiency. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01219244.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Köbe
- Department of Neurology, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence
| | - A Veronica Witte
- Department of Neurology, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute of Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany; Sonderforschungsbereich 1052 Obesity Mechanism Subproject A1, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Valentina A Tesky
- Institute of General Practice, Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Johannes Pantel
- Institute of General Practice, Goethe-University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jan Philipp Schuchardt
- Department of Nutrition Physiology and Human Nutrition, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University; Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Hahn
- Department of Nutrition Physiology and Human Nutrition, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University; Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens Bohlken
- Practice Bohlken for Neurology and Psychiatry, Berlin, Germany; and
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatic, University Medicine, Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Agnes Flöel
- Department of Neurology, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Center for Stroke Research Berlin, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany;
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Hu F, Ge MM, Chen WH. Effects of lead exposure on dendrite and spine development in hippocampal dentate gyrus areas of rats. Synapse 2016; 70:87-97. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.21873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Hu
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering; Hefei University of Technology; Hefei Anhui 230009 People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Meng Ge
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering; Hefei University of Technology; Hefei Anhui 230009 People's Republic of China
| | - Wei-Heng Chen
- School of Life Sciences; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230027 People's Republic of China
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Zou Y, Feng W, Wang W, Chen Y, Zhou Z, Li Q, Zhao T, Mao G, Wu X, Yang L. Protective Effect of Porcine Cerebral Hydrolysate Peptides on Learning and Memory Deficits and Oxidative Stress in Lead-Exposed Mice. Biol Trace Elem Res 2015; 168:429-40. [PMID: 25956150 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-015-0329-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, lead acetate solution and porcine cerebral hydrolysate peptides (PCHPs) were administered to developing mice. Porcine cerebral protein pretreated by ultrasound was hydrolyzed with alcalase, and 11 peptide fragments were obtained by Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis of PCHPs. Our data showed that PCHPs significantly decreased Pb2+-induced spontaneous locomotor activity, latencies to reach the platform, and the time in target quadrant. It also decreased the accumulation of lead in the blood and brain of Pb2+-exposed developing mice. Co-administration of PCHPs and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) did not only reduce the accumulation of lead in blood but also increased the absorption of zinc and iron in Pb2+-exposed mice. Administration of PCHPs individually significantly enhanced hematopoietic parameters compared with the Pb2+-exposed group. PCHPs significantly reduced the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) but increased glutathione (GSH) content and anti-oxidant enzymes and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activities in Pb2+-exposed brain. Our findings suggest that PCHPs have the ability to protect against Pb2+-exposed learning and memory deficits and oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zou
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Weiwei Feng
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yao Chen
- School of the Environment, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhaoxiang Zhou
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qian Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ting Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guanghua Mao
- School of the Environment, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiangyang Wu
- School of the Environment, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Liuqing Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Rd., Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China.
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Ge MM, Hu F, Lou ZY, Xue W, Yu H, Xu L, Liu ZH, Xu Y, Chen XT, Wang HL. Role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the protective effect of epigallocatechin-3-gallate on lead-induced impairments of spine formation in the hippocampus of rats. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra00315f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) may significantly reverse Pb-related spine damage in developing rats by increasing the expression of Wnt7a and the activity of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Meng Ge
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Fan Hu
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Zhi-Yi Lou
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Weizhen Xue
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Hang Yu
- School of Pharmacy
- Anhui Medical University
- Hefei
- China
| | - Li Xu
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Zhi-Hua Liu
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | - Yi Xu
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
| | | | - Hui-Li Wang
- School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering
- Hefei University of Technology
- Hefei
- China
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Herrero E, Arancibia V, Rojas–Romo C. Simultaneous determination of Pb2+, Cd2+ and Zn2+ by adsorptive stripping voltammetry using Clioquinol as a chelating-adsorbent agent. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2014.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Taghizadeh M, Talaei SA, Salami M. Vitamin D deficiency impairs spatial learning in adult rats. IRANIAN BIOMEDICAL JOURNAL 2013; 17:42-8. [PMID: 23279834 DOI: 10.6091/ibj.1061.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Through its membrane and intracellular receptors, vitamin D regulates many vital functions in the body including its well known actions on musculoskeletal system. Growing body of evidences demonstrate that vitamin D undergoes some of behavioral aspects of neurocognition. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of food regimens without vitamin D or with a supplement of 1,25(OH)2D3 on spatial performance of adult rats. METHODS The animals were trained in the Morris water maze to find a hidden platform. The time spent and the distance traveled to find the platform, speed of navigation and the percentage of unsuccessful trials were considered for assessment of the task learning. RESULTS Our findings indicated that the vitamin D-deprived rats had a significant lower performance compared to both the controls and the animals receiving 1,25(OH)2D3 supplementation. Concerning the unsuccessful trials, lack of vitamin D resulted in the highest failures in the maze navigation. The regimen with additional 1,25(OH)2D3 did not considerably influence learning of the maze task. CONCLUSION We concluded that while vitamin D deficiency deteriorates the spatial task learning, the 1,25(OH)2D3 supplementation did not effectively underlie the maze performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohsen Taghizadeh
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Disease, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan
| | | | - Mahmoud Salami
- Physiology Research Center, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
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Sears ME. Chelation: harnessing and enhancing heavy metal detoxification--a review. ScientificWorldJournal 2013; 2013:219840. [PMID: 23690738 PMCID: PMC3654245 DOI: 10.1155/2013/219840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxic metals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury are ubiquitous, have no beneficial role in human homeostasis, and contribute to noncommunicable chronic diseases. While novel drug targets for chronic disease are eagerly sought, potentially helpful agents that aid in detoxification of toxic elements, chelators, have largely been restricted to overt acute poisoning. Chelation, that is multiple coordination bonds between organic molecules and metals, is very common in the body and at the heart of enzymes with a metal cofactor such as copper or zinc. Peptides glutathione and metallothionein chelate both essential and toxic elements as they are sequestered, transported, and excreted. Enhancing natural chelation detoxification pathways, as well as use of pharmaceutical chelators against heavy metals are reviewed. Historical adverse outcomes with chelators, lessons learned in the art of using them, and successes using chelation to ameliorate renal, cardiovascular, and neurological conditions highlight the need for renewed attention to simple, safe, inexpensive interventions that offer potential to stem the tide of debilitating, expensive chronic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Sears
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, 401 Smyth Road, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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Luo W, Ruan D, Yan C, Yin S, Chen J. Effects of chronic lead exposure on functions of nervous system in Chinese children and developmental rats. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:862-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Salami M, Talaei SA, Davari S, Taghizadeh M. Hippocampal long term potentiation in rats under different regimens of vitamin D: an in vivo study. Neurosci Lett 2011; 509:56-9. [PMID: 22227619 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2011] [Revised: 12/18/2011] [Accepted: 12/22/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Evidence indicates that vitamin D involves in development of brain as well as its function. This study assesses occurrence of long term potentiation (LTP), as an experimental form of synaptic plasticity, in adult rats under the normal regimen (CON), and the regimens without vitamin D (CON-D) or with a supplement of 1,25(OH)2D3 (CON+D). Stimulating the Schaffer collaterals pre- and post-tetanus excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were recorded in the CA1 area of hippocampus in anesthetized animals. Amplitude change of the EPSPs was considered for comparisons. Our results indicated that the basic EPSPs were similar in the three groups. Tetanization elicited a considerable LTP in both the CON and CON+D rats but a moderate potentiation in the CON-D group. We concluded that optimal level of vitamin D is required for induction of LTP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Salami
- Physiology Research Center, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Islamic Republic of Iran
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Levothyroxine rescues the lead-induced hypothyroidism and impairment of long-term potentiation in hippocampal CA1 region of the developmental rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 256:191-7. [PMID: 21871911 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) exposure during development has been associated with impaired long-term potentiation (LTP). Hypothyroidism happening upon subjects with occupational exposure to Pb is suggestive of an adverse effect of Pb on thyroid homeostasis, leading to the hypothesis that Pb exposure may alter thyroid hormone homeostasis. Hippocampus is one of the targets of Pb exposure, and is sensitive to and dependent on thyroid hormones, leading us to explore whether levothyroxine (L-T(4)) administration could alter the thyroid disequilibrium and impairment of LTP in rat hippocampus caused by Pb exposure. Our results show that Pb exposure caused a decrease in triiodothyronine (T(3)) and tetraiodothyronine (T(4)) levels accompanied by a dramatic decrease of TSH and application of L-T(4) restored these changes to about control levels. Hippocampal and blood Pb concentration were significantly reduced following L-T(4) treatment. L-T(4) treatment rescued the impairment of LTP induced by the Pb exposure. These results suggest that Pb exposure may lead to thyroid dysfunction and induce hypothyroidism and provide a direct electrophysiological proof that L-T(4) relieves chronic Pb exposure-induced impairment of synaptic plasticity.
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Ruden DM, Chen L, Possidente D, Possidente B, Rasouli P, Wang L, Lu X, Garfinkel MD, Hirsch HVB, Page GP. Genetical toxicogenomics in Drosophila identifies master-modulatory loci that are regulated by developmental exposure to lead. Neurotoxicology 2009; 30:898-914. [PMID: 19737576 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2009.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2009] [Revised: 08/17/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The genetics of gene expression in recombinant inbred lines (RILs) can be mapped as expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs). So-called "genetical genomics" studies have identified locally acting eQTLs (cis-eQTLs) for genes that show differences in steady-state RNA levels. These studies have also identified distantly acting master-modulatory trans-eQTLs that regulate tens or hundreds of transcripts (hotspots or transbands). We expand on these studies by performing genetical genomics experiments in two environments in order to identify trans-eQTL that might be regulated by developmental exposure to the neurotoxin lead. Flies from each of 75 RIL were raised from eggs to adults on either control food (made with 250 microM sodium acetate), or lead-treated food (made with 250 microM lead acetate, PbAc). RNA expression analyses of whole adult male flies (5-10 days old) were performed with Affymetrix DrosII whole genome arrays (18,952 probesets). Among the 1389 genes with cis-eQTL, there were 405 genes unique to control flies and 544 genes unique to lead-treated ones (440 genes had the same cis-eQTLs in both samples). There are 2396 genes with trans-eQTL which mapped to 12 major transbands with greater than 95 genes. Permutation analyses of the strain labels but not the expression data suggests that the total number of eQTL and the number of transbands are more important criteria for validation than the size of the transband. Two transbands, one located on the 2nd chromosome and one on the 3rd chromosome, co-regulate 33 lead-induced genes, many of which are involved in neurodevelopmental processes. For these 33 genes, rather than allelic variation at one locus exerting differential effects in two environments, we found that variation at two different loci are required for optimal effects on lead-induced expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas M Ruden
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201-2654, USA.
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Biran Y, Masters CL, Barnham KJ, Bush AI, Adlard PA. Pharmacotherapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease. J Cell Mol Med 2008; 13:61-86. [PMID: 19040415 PMCID: PMC3823037 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00595.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which is characterized by an increasing impairment in normal memory and cognitive processes that significantly diminishes a person's daily functioning. Despite decades of research and advances in our understanding of disease aetiology and pathogenesis, there are still no effective disease-modifying drugs available for the treatment of AD. However, numerous compounds are currently undergoing pre-clinical and clinical evaluations. These candidate pharma-cotherapeutics are aimed at various aspects of the disease, such as the microtubule-associated τ-protein, the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and metal ion dyshomeostasis – all of which are involved in the development and progression of AD. We will review the way these pharmacological strategies target the biochemical and clinical features of the disease and the investigational drugs for each category.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yif'at Biran
- The Oxidation Biology Laboratory, The Mental Health Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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