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Samanta S, Akhter F, Roy A, Chen D, Turner B, Wang Y, Clemente N, Wang C, Swerdlow RH, Battaile KP, Lovell S, Yan SF, Yan SS. New cyclophilin D inhibitor rescues mitochondrial and cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 2024; 147:1710-1725. [PMID: 38146639 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awad432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is an early pathological feature of Alzheimer disease and plays a crucial role in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease. Strategies to rescue mitochondrial function and cognition remain to be explored. Cyclophilin D (CypD), the peptidylprolyl isomerase F (PPIase), is a key component in opening the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death. Blocking membrane permeability transition pore opening by inhibiting CypD activity is a promising therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease. However, there is currently no effective CypD inhibitor for Alzheimer's disease, with previous candidates demonstrating high toxicity, poor ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, compromised biocompatibility and low selectivity. Here, we report a new class of non-toxic and biocompatible CypD inhibitor, ebselen, using a conventional PPIase assay to screen a library of ∼2000 FDA-approved drugs with crystallographic analysis of the CypD-ebselen crystal structure (PDB code: 8EJX). More importantly, we assessed the effects of genetic and pharmacological blockade of CypD on Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial and glycolytic bioenergetics in Alzheimer's disease-derived mitochondrial cybrid cells, an ex vivo human sporadic Alzheimer's disease mitochondrial model, and on synaptic function, inflammatory response and learning and memory in Alzheimer's disease mouse models. Inhibition of CypD by ebselen protects against sporadic Alzheimer's disease- and amyloid-β-induced mitochondrial and glycolytic perturbation, synaptic and cognitive dysfunction, together with suppressing neuroinflammation in the brain of Alzheimer's disease mouse models, which is linked to CypD-related membrane permeability transition pore formation. Thus, CypD inhibitors have the potential to slow the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, by boosting mitochondrial bioenergetics and improving synaptic and cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourav Samanta
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Firoz Akhter
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Anuradha Roy
- High Throughput Screening Laboratory, Del M. Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Doris Chen
- Higuchi Bioscience Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Benjamin Turner
- High Throughput Screening Laboratory, Del M. Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Yongfu Wang
- Higuchi Bioscience Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Nicolina Clemente
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York, NY 12180-3590, USA
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York, NY 12180-3590, USA
| | | | - Kevin P Battaile
- New York Structural Biology Center, NSLS-II, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Scott Lovell
- Protein Structure and X-Ray Crystallography Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Shi Fang Yan
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Shirley ShiDu Yan
- Division of Surgical Science of Department of Surgery, Columbia University in New York, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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Karandikar P, Gerstl JVE, Kappel AD, Won SY, Dubinski D, Garcia-Segura ME, Gessler FA, See AP, Peruzzotti-Jametti L, Bernstock JD. SUMOtherapeutics for Ischemic Stroke. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16050673. [PMID: 37242456 DOI: 10.3390/ph16050673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The small, ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is a post-translational modifier with a profound influence on several key biological processes, including the mammalian stress response. Of particular interest are its neuroprotective effects, first recognized in the 13-lined ground squirrel (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus), in the context of hibernation torpor. Although the full scope of the SUMO pathway is yet to be elucidated, observations of its importance in managing neuronal responses to ischemia, maintaining ion gradients, and the preconditioning of neural stem cells make it a promising therapeutic target for acute cerebral ischemia. Recent advances in high-throughput screening have enabled the identification of small molecules that can upregulate SUMOylation, some of which have been validated in pertinent preclinical models of cerebral ischemia. Accordingly, the present review aims to summarize current knowledge and highlight the translational potential of the SUMOylation pathway in brain ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paramesh Karandikar
- T. H. Chan School of Medicine, University of Massachusetts, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Jakob V E Gerstl
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ari D Kappel
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Sae-Yeon Won
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Daniel Dubinski
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Monica Emili Garcia-Segura
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Florian A Gessler
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Alfred Pokmeng See
- Department of Neurosurgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Luca Peruzzotti-Jametti
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Joshua D Bernstock
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany
- Koch Institute for Integrated Cancer Research, MIT, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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Abstract
Abstract
Ebselen is a well-known synthetic compound mimicking glutathione peroxidase (GPx), which catalyses some vital reactions that protect against oxidative damage. Based on a large number of in vivo and in vitro studies, various mechanisms have been proposed to explain its actions on multiple targets. It targets thiol-related compounds, including cysteine, glutathione, and thiol proteins (e.g., thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase). Owing to this, ebselen is a unique multifunctional agent with important effects on inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, cell differentiation, immune regulation and neurodegenerative disease, with anti-microbial, detoxifying and anti-tumour activity. This review summarises the current understanding of the multiple biological processes and molecules targeted by ebselen, and its pharmacological applications.
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Wang Y, Chen T, Gan Z, Li H, Li Y, Zhang Y, Zhao X. Metabolomic analysis of untargeted bovine uterine secretions in dairy cows with endometritis using ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Res Vet Sci 2021; 139:51-58. [PMID: 34252702 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Endometritis is among the most common bovine uterine diseases; as a cause of infertility, it affects the progress of the cattle industry. In this study, we used a novel technique based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for comparative metabolomics of uterine secretions in healthy cows and cows with endometritis, classified based on clinical symptoms. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses revealed significant differences between the two groups (n = 12). Compared with healthy uterine secretion samples, in the clinical endometritis samples, coumaric acid, benzoic acid, and equol were downregulated. However, l-phenylalanine, glutamine, succinic acid, linoleate, arachidonic acid, and other metabolites were upregulated, revealing variations between healthy cows and cows with endometritis (p < 0.05). This metabolomic approach may provide an in-depth understanding of endometritis pathobiology, along with a theoretical framework for the diagnosis and treatment of this bovine disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Tingting Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Ze Gan
- College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Haijiang Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Yina Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Xingxu Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; College of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
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Abstract
Ebselen is a synthetic organoselenium radical scavenger compound that possesses glutathione peroxidase-like activity and its own unique bioactivity by reacting with thiols, hydroperoxides and peroxynitrites. Owing to its high affinity toward several essential reactions, ebselen protects cellular components from oxidative and free radical damage, and it has been employed as a useful tool for studying redox-related mechanisms. Based on numerous in vitro and in vivo research, mechanisms are proposed to understand the biomedical and molecular actions of ebselen in health and disease, and it is currently under clinical trials for the prevention and treatment of various human disorders. Based on these outstanding discoveries, this review summarizes the current understanding of the biochemical and molecular characteristics, pharmacological applications and future directions of ebselen.
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Uddin MS, Al Mamun A, Kabir MT, Ashraf GM, Bin-Jumah MN, Abdel-Daim MM. Multi-Target Drug Candidates for Multifactorial Alzheimer's Disease: AChE and NMDAR as Molecular Targets. Mol Neurobiol 2020; 58:281-303. [PMID: 32935230 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-02116-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common forms of dementia among elder people, which is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that results from a chronic loss of cognitive activities. It has been observed that AD is multifactorial, hence diverse pharmacological targets that could be followed for the treatment of AD. The Food and Drug Administration has approved two types of medications for AD treatment such as cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) and N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR) antagonists. Rivastigmine, donepezil, and galantamine are the ChEIs that have been approved to treat AD. On the other hand, memantine is the only non-competitive NMDAR antagonist approved in AD treatment. As compared with placebo, it has been revealed through clinical studies that many single-target therapies are unsuccessful to treat multifactorial Alzheimer's symptoms or disease progression. Therefore, due to the complex nature of AD pathophysiology, diverse pharmacological targets can be hunted. In this article, based on the entwined link of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and NMDAR, we represent several multifunctional compounds in the rational design of new potential AD medications. This review focus on the significance of privileged scaffolds in the generation of the multi-target lead compound for treating AD, investigating the idea and challenges of multi-target drug design. Furthermore, the most auspicious elementary units for designing as well as synthesizing hybrid drugs are demonstrated as pharmacological probes in the rational design of new potential AD therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Sahab Uddin
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
| | - Abdullah Al Mamun
- Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Pharmakon Neuroscience Research Network, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Ghulam Md Ashraf
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - May N Bin-Jumah
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11474, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed M Abdel-Daim
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
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Zheng W, He R, Boada R, Subirana MA, Ginman T, Ottosson H, Valiente M, Zhao Y, Hassan M. A general covalent binding model between cytotoxic selenocompounds and albumin revealed by mass spectrometry and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1274. [PMID: 31988319 PMCID: PMC6985102 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57983-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenocompounds (SeCs) are promising therapeutic agents for a wide range of diseases including cancer. The treatment results are heterogeneous and dependent on both the chemical species and the concentration of SeCs. Moreover, the mechanisms of action are poorly revealed, which most probably is due to the detection methods where the quantification is based on the total selenium as an element. To understand the mechanisms underlying the heterogeneous cytotoxicity of SeCs and to determine their pharmacokinetics, we investigated selenium speciation of six SeCs representing different categories using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and the cytotoxicity using leukemic cells. SeCs cytotoxicity was correlated with albumin binding degree as revealed by LC-MS and XAS. Further analysis corroborated the covalent binding between selenol intermediates of SeCs and albumin thiols. On basis of the Se-S model, pharmacokinetic properties of four SeCs were for the first time profiled. In summary, we have shown that cytotoxic SeCs could spontaneously transform into selenol intermediates that immediately react with albumin thiols through Se-S bond. The heterogeneous albumin binding degree may predict the variability in cytotoxicity. The present knowledge will also guide further kinetic and mechanistic investigations in both experimental and clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyi Zheng
- Experimental Cancer Medicine, Clinical Research Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, 141 86, Sweden.,ECM, Clinical Research Center and Center for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rui He
- Experimental Cancer Medicine, Clinical Research Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, 141 86, Sweden.,ECM, Clinical Research Center and Center for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Roberto Boada
- Centre GTS, Department of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Maria Angels Subirana
- Centre GTS, Department of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | | | - Håkan Ottosson
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, 141 86, Sweden
| | - Manuel Valiente
- Centre GTS, Department of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Ying Zhao
- Experimental Cancer Medicine, Clinical Research Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, 141 86, Sweden. .,ECM, Clinical Research Center and Center for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Moustapha Hassan
- Experimental Cancer Medicine, Clinical Research Center, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, 141 86, Sweden. .,ECM, Clinical Research Center and Center for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Yang Q, Huang Q, Hu Z, Tang X. Potential Neuroprotective Treatment of Stroke: Targeting Excitotoxicity, Oxidative Stress, and Inflammation. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1036. [PMID: 31611768 PMCID: PMC6777147 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of death and adult disability. However, therapeutic options remain limited. Numerous pathways underlie acute responses of brain tissue to stroke. Early events following ischemic damage include reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated oxidative stress and glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, both of which contribute to rapid cell death within the infarct core. A subsequent cascade of inflammatory events escalates damage progression. This review explores potential neuroprotective strategies for targeting key steps in the cascade of ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. NADPH oxidase (NOX) inhibitors and several drugs currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration including glucose-lowering agents, antibiotics, and immunomodulators, have shown promise in the treatment of stroke in both animal experiments and clinical trials. Ischemic conditioning, a phenomenon by which one or more cycles of a short period of sublethal ischemia to an organ or tissue protects against subsequent ischemic events in another organ, may be another potential neuroprotective strategy for the treatment of stroke by targeting key steps in the I/R injury cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianwen Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qianyi Huang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Zhiping Hu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiangqi Tang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
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Girek M, Szymański P. Tacrine hybrids as multi-target-directed ligands in Alzheimer’s disease: influence of chemical structures on biological activities. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-018-0590-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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10
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Jia ZQ, Li SQ, Qiao WQ, Xu WZ, Xing JW, Liu JT, Song H, Gao ZY, Xing BW, He XJ. Ebselen protects mitochondrial function and oxidative stress while inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway after acute spinal cord injury. Neurosci Lett 2018; 678:110-117. [PMID: 29733976 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Ebselen is a fat-soluble small molecule and organic selenium compound that regulates the activity of glutathione peroxidase to alleviate mitochondrial oxidative stress and improve mitochondrial function. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of ebselen on mitochondrial oxidative stress response, mitochondrial apotosis, and motor behaviors after spinal cord injury (SCI). We found that ebselen significantly increased the BBB score in motor behavior, thus suggesting a rescue effect of ebselen on motor function after SCI in rats. Meanwhile, we revealed that ebselen can increase glutathione (GSH) content as well as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities after SCI-this suggests ebselen has an antioxidant effect. Furthermore, the ATP content and Na+-K+-ATPase activity in mitochondria were increased by ebselen after SCI, while the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was decreased by ebselen. The Cytochrome C and Smac release from mitochondria were reduced by ebselen after SCI, thus indicating improved membrane permeability by ebselen. Moreover, the alterations in caspase-3, Bax and Bcl-2 protein expression, as well as the proportion of cell apoptosis were improved by ebselen treatment, which together suggested that ebselen has an inhibitory effect on mitochondrial apotosis pathways after SCI. Taken together, our results suggest that ebselen can inhibit secondary damage caused by spinal cord injury. Indeed it plays a neuroprotective role in spinal cord injury perhaps by improving mitochondrial function and inhibiting the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Qiang Jia
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xian 710004, PR China; Department of Spinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, PR China.
| | - San-Qiang Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471003, PR China
| | - Wei-Qiang Qiao
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Clinical Medicine of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, PR China
| | - Wen-Zhong Xu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, PR China
| | - Jian-Wu Xing
- Department of Spinal Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471000, PR China
| | - Jian-Tao Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xian 710004, PR China
| | - Hui Song
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xian 710004, PR China
| | - Zhong-Yang Gao
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xian 710004, PR China
| | - Bing-Wen Xing
- Medical College, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471003, PR China
| | - Xi-Jing He
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xian 710004, PR China.
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11
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Wu WY, Dai YC, Li NG, Dong ZX, Gu T, Shi ZH, Xue X, Tang YP, Duan JA. Novel multitarget-directed tacrine derivatives as potential candidates for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2017; 32:572-587. [PMID: 28133981 PMCID: PMC6009885 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2016.1210139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, which is complex and progressive; it has not only threatened the health of elderly people, but also burdened the whole social medical and health system. The available therapy for AD is limited and the efficacy remains unsatisfactory. In view of the prevalence and expected increase in the incidence of AD, the design and development of efficacious and safe anti-AD agents has become a hotspot in the field of pharmaceutical research. Due to the multifactorial etiology of AD, the multitarget-directed ligands (MTDLs) approach is promising in search for new drugs for AD. Tacrine, which is the first acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor, has been selected as the ideal active fragment because of its simple structure, clear activity, and its superiority in the structural modification, thus it could be introduced into the overall molecular skeletons of the multi-target-directed anti-AD agents. In this review, we have summarized the recent advances (2012 to the present) in the chemical modification of tacrine, which could provide the reference for the further study of novel multi-target-directed tacrine derivatives to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Yu Wu
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Yu-Chen Dai
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Nian-Guang Li
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Ze-Xi Dong
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Ting Gu
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Zhi-Hao Shi
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,c Department of Organic Chemistry , China Pharmaceutical University , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Xin Xue
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Yu-Ping Tang
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
| | - Jin-Ao Duan
- a Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae, National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China.,b Department of Medicinal Chemistry , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , Jiangsu , China
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Ozyigit F, Kucuk A, Akcer S, Tosun M, Kocak FE, Kocak C, Kocak A, Metineren H, Genc O. Different dose-dependent effects of ebselen in sciatic nerve ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats. Bosn J Basic Med Sci 2015; 15:36-43. [PMID: 26614850 DOI: 10.17305/bjbms.2015.521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ebselen is an organoselenium compound which has strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. We investigated the neuroprotective role of ebselen pretreatment in rats with experimental sciatic nerve ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into four groups (N = 7 in each group). Before sciatic nerve I/R was induced, ebselen was injected intraperitoneally at doses of 15 and 30 mg/kg. After a 2 h ischemia and a 3 h reperfusion period, sciatic nerve tissues were excised. Tissue levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO), and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) were measured. Sciatic nerve tissues were also examined histopathologically. The 15 mg/kg dose of ebselen reduced sciatic nerve damage and apoptosis (p<0.01), levels of MDA, NO, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) positive cells (p<0.01, p<0.05, respectively), and increased SOD, GPx, and CAT activities (p<0.001, p<0.01, p<0.05, respectively) compared with the I/R group that did not receive ebselen. Conversely, the 30 mg/kg dose of ebselen increased sciatic nerve damage, apoptosis, iNOS positive cells (p<0.01, p<0.05, p<0.001) and MDA and NO levels (p<0.05, p<0.01) and decreased SOD, GPx, and CAT activities (p<0.05) compared with the sham group. The results of this study suggest that ebselen may cause different effects depending on the dose employed. Ebselen may be protective against sciatic nerve I/R injury via antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities at a 15 mg/kg dose, conversely higher doses may cause detrimental effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filiz Ozyigit
- Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Kutahya, Turkey.
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The protective effects of Trolox-loaded chitosan nanoparticles against hypoxia-mediated cell apoptosis. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2014; 10:1411-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Revised: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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14
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Aras M, Altaş M, Meydan S, Nacar E, Karcıoğlu M, Ulutaş KT, Serarslan Y. Effects of ebselen on ischemia/reperfusion injury in rat brain. Int J Neurosci 2014; 124:771-6. [PMID: 24405262 DOI: 10.3109/00207454.2013.879581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
AIM Interruption of blood flow may result in considerable tissue damage via ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury-induced oxidative stress in brain tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of Ebselen treatment in short-term global brain I/R injury in rats. MATERIAL AND METHODS The study was carried out on 27 Wistar-albino rats, divided into three groups including Sham group (n = 11), I/R group (n = 8) and I/R+Ebselen group (n = 8). RESULTS Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly increased in I/R group in comparison with the Sham group and I/R+Ebselen group (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was significantly lower in I/R group in comparison to both Sham (p < 0.001) and I/R+Ebselen (p < 0.01) groups. Similarly, SOD activity was decreased in I/R+Ebselen group when compared with Sham group (p < 0.001). Sham and I/R groups were similar in terms of nitric oxide (NO) levels. In contrast, the NO level was lower in I/R+Ebselen group when compared with Sham (p < 0.001) and I/R (p < 0.01) groups. There was no significant difference among the groups in terms of glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities. In histopathological examination, the brain tissues of rats that received Ebselen showed morphological improvement. CONCLUSION Ebselen has neuron-protective effects due to its antioxidant properties as shown by the decrease in MDA overproduction, increase in SOD activity and the histological improvement after administration of Ebselen to I/R in brain tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Aras
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Tayfur Ata Sökmen Medical Faculty, Mustafa Kemal University , Hatay , Turkey
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15
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Mao F, Chen J, Zhou Q, Luo Z, Huang L, Li X. Novel tacrine–ebselen hybrids with improved cholinesterase inhibitory, hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite scavenging activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:6737-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2013] [Revised: 10/05/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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16
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Unsal C, Oran M, Albayrak Y, Aktas C, Erboga M, Topcu B, Uygur R, Tulubas F, Yanartas O, Ates O, Ozen OA. Neuroprotective effect of ebselen against intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced neuronal apoptosis and oxidative stress in rats. Toxicol Ind Health 2013; 32:730-40. [PMID: 24231787 DOI: 10.1177/0748233713509429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to examine the neuroprotective effect of ebselen against intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (ICV-STZ)-induced oxidative stress and neuronal apoptosis in rat brain. A total of 30 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into 3 groups of 10 animals each: control, ICV-STZ, and ICV-STZ treated with ebselen. The ICV-STZ group rats were injected bilaterally with ICV-STZ (3 mg/kg) on days 1 and 3, and ebselen (10 mg/kg/day) was administered for 14 days starting from 1st day of ICV-STZ injection to day 14. Rats were killed at the end of the study and brain tissues were removed for biochemical and histopathological investigation. Our results demonstrated, for the first time, the neuroprotective effect of ebselen on Alzheimer's disease (AD) model in rats. Our present study, in ICV-STZ group, showed significant increase in tissue malondialdehyde levels and significant decrease in enzymatic antioxidants superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in the frontal cortex tissue. The histopathological studies in the brain of rats also supported that ebselen markedly reduced the ICV-STZ-induced histopathological changes and well preserved the normal histological architecture of the frontal cortex tissue. The number of apoptotic neurons was increased in frontal cortex tissue after ICV-STZ administration. Treatment of ebselen markedly reduced the number of degenerating apoptotic neurons. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of ebselen, as a powerful antioxidant, in preventing the oxidative damage and morphological changes caused by ICV-STZ in rats. Thus, ebselen may have a therapeutic value for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuneyt Unsal
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Oran
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Yakup Albayrak
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Cevat Aktas
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Erboga
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Birol Topcu
- Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Ramazan Uygur
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Feti Tulubas
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Omer Yanartas
- Department of Psychiatry, The Ministry of Health of Turkey, Marmara University Hospital Pendik Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ozkan Ates
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
| | - Oguz Aslan Ozen
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
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17
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Santofimia-Castaño P, Salido GM, González A. Ebselen alters mitochondrial physiology and reduces viability of rat hippocampal astrocytes. DNA Cell Biol 2013; 32:147-55. [PMID: 23496767 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2012.1939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The seleno-organic compound and radical scavenger ebselen (2-phenyl-1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one) have been extensively employed as an anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective compound. However, its glutathione peroxidase activity at the expense of cellular thiols groups could underlie certain deleterious actions of the compound on cell physiology. In this study, we have analyzed the effect of ebselen on rat hippocampal astrocytes in culture. Cellular viability, the intracellular free-Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]c), the mitochondrial free-Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]m), and mitochondrial membrane potential (ψm) were analyzed. The caspase-3 activity was also assayed. Our results show that cell viability was reduced by treatment of cells with ebselen, depending on the concentration employed. In the presence of ebselen, we observed an initial transient increase in [Ca(2+)]c that was then followed by a progressive increase to an elevated plateau. We also observed a transient increase in [Ca(2+)]m in the presence of ebselen that returned toward a value over the prestimulation level. The compound induced depolarization of ψm and altered the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane. Additionally, a disruption of the mitochondrial network was observed. Finally, we did not detect changes in caspase-3 activation in response to ebselen treatment. Collectively, these data support the likelihood of ebselen, depending on the concentration employed, reduces viability of rat hippocampal astrocytes via its action on the mitochondrial activity. These may be early effects that do not involve caspase-3 activation. We conclude that, depending on the concentration used, ebselen might exert deleterious actions on astrocyte physiology that could compromise cell function.
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18
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Giles NM, Kumari S, Stamm RA, Patel S, Giles GI. A hydrogen peroxide electrode assay to measure thiol peroxidase activity for organoselenium and organotellurium drugs. Anal Biochem 2012; 429:103-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2012.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Revised: 07/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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19
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Sabir SM, Salman SM, Rocha JBT. Antioxidant properties of β-seleno amines against lipid peroxidation in rat brain and liver. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2012; 34:446-453. [PMID: 22797322 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2012.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/16/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
β-Seleno amines were screened for in vitro antioxidant activity. The compounds (C1-C4) were tested against lipid peroxidation induced by iron and sodium nitroprusside in rat brain and liver homogenates. The compounds showed inhibition against thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) induced by different pro-oxidants (10μM FeSO(4) and 5μM sodium nitroprusside (SNP) in rat brain and liver homogenates. The compounds exhibited strong antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical and phosphomolybdenum assays. The IC(50) values revealed that the β-seleno amines in which the amino group was protected with protecting groups tert-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc) and Tosyl (Ts) groups showed better antioxidant profiles compared to the free monoselenides. The total antioxidant activity of C1, C2, C3 and C4 were found to be 85.2±11.5, 114±7.9, 138±8.5, 125.81±5.2μM/ml of ascorbic acid respectively. Therefore, these compounds may be used as synthetic antioxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Sabir
- Department of Eastern Medicine and Surgery, University of the Pooch Rawalakot Azad Kashmir Pakistan.
| | - Syed M Salman
- Department of Chemistry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - J B T Rocha
- Departmento de Química, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, CEP 97105-900, Brazil
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Yamagata K, Tagawa C, Matsufuji H, Chino M. Dietary apigenin regulates high glucose and hypoxic reoxygenation-induced reductions in apelin expression in human endothelial cells. J Nutr Biochem 2012; 23:929-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2011.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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21
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Ebselen inhibits iron-induced tau phosphorylation by attenuating DMT1 up-regulation and cellular iron uptake. Neurochem Int 2012; 61:334-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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22
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Cai TG, Cai Y. Triterpenes from the fungus Poria cocos and their inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production in mouse macrophages via blockade of activating protein-1 pathway. Chem Biodivers 2012; 8:2135-43. [PMID: 22083926 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Two new triterpenes, 29-hydroxydehydrotumulosic acid (1) and 29-hydroxydehydropachymic acid (2), together with six known compounds, dehydropachymic acid (3), dehydrotumulosic acid (4), 29-hydroxypolyporenic acid C (5), polyporenic acid C (6), tumulosic acid (7), and pachymic acid (8), were isolated from the dried sclerotia of Poria cocos. In the in vitro bioassays, these isolated compounds reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, nitric oxide (NO) production from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells, with compounds 5 and 6, the IC(50) values of which were 16.8±2.7 and 18.2±3.3 μM, respectively, exhibiting the greatest inhibition activity. Further Western blot analysis conducted on cells pre-treated with compounds 5 and 6, and luciferase assays on activator protein 1-dependent gene expression revealed that the inhibited NO release was attributed to the reduced expression of iNOs (=inducible NO synthase) enzymes, which might be regulated via the blockade of activator protein-1 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian-Ge Cai
- School of Life Science, Liaoning University, Shenyang, P R China
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23
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Current therapies in ischemic stroke. Part B. Future candidates in stroke therapy and experimental studies. Drug Discov Today 2012; 17:671-84. [PMID: 22405898 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2012.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Stroke still remains a major healthcare problem. The growing understanding of the mechanism of cell death in ischemia leads to new approaches in stroke treatment. The aim of neuroprotection is to reduce the post-stroke impairment and the overall costs that are accompanied in patients with severe disability. Despite encouraging data from experimental animal models, almost all neuroprotective therapies have, to date, not been established in clinical routine. In this part B of our review on stroke therapies we provide an overview on future candidates in stroke therapy and neuroprotective agents that are under investigation.
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Synchrotron radiation induced X-ray emission studies of the antioxidant mechanism of the organoselenium drug ebselen. J Biol Inorg Chem 2012; 17:589-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-012-0879-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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25
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de Souza Prestes A, Stefanello ST, Salman SM, Pazini AM, Schwab RS, Braga AL, de Vargas Barbosa NB, Rocha JBT. Antioxidant activity of β-selenoamines and their capacity to mimic different enzymes. Mol Cell Biochem 2012; 365:85-92. [PMID: 22311601 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-012-1246-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The antioxidant properties of organoselenium compounds have been extensively investigated because oxidative stress is a hallmark of a variety of chronic human diseases. Here, we reported the influence of substituent groups in the antioxidant activity of β-selenoamines. We have investigated whether they exhibited glutathione peroxidase-like (GPx-like) activity and whether they could be substrate of thioredoxin reductase (TrxR). In the DPPH assay, the β-selenium amines did not exhibit antioxidant activity. However, the β-selenium amines with p-methoxy and tosyl groups prevented the lipid peroxidation. The β-selenium amine compound with p-methoxy substituent group exhibited thiol-peroxidase-like activity (GPx-like activity) and was reduced by the hepatic TrxR. These results contribute to understand the influence of structural alteration of non-conventional selenium compounds as synthetic mimetic of antioxidant enzymes of mammalian organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro de Souza Prestes
- Departamento de Química, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS CEP 97105-900, Brazil
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26
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Azad GK, Balkrishna SJ, Sathish N, Kumar S, Tomar RS. Multifunctional Ebselen drug functions through the activation of DNA damage response and alterations in nuclear proteins. Biochem Pharmacol 2012; 83:296-303. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 10/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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A Clinically Relevant Rabbit Embolic Stroke Model for Acute Ischemic Stroke Therapy Development: Mechanisms and Targets. Transl Stroke Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-9530-8_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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28
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Cai T, Cai Y. cis-Ampelopsin E, a stilbene isolated from the seeds of Paeonia suffruticosa, inhibits lipopolysaccharide-stimulated nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages via blockade of nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. Biol Pharm Bull 2011; 34:1501-7. [PMID: 21881241 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.34.1501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Stilbenes are a class of compounds that has been reported to inhibit a variety of pathological processes during inflammatory reactions. In this study, cis-ampelopsin E, a stilbene isolated from the seeds of Paeonia suffruticosa, was shown to dose-dependently reduce the nitric oxide (NO) production from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The reduction in the nitric oxide release occurred in parallel with the comparable inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) enzyme expression, which was achieved by cis-ampelopsin E's suppressive effect on nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling activation. By inhibiting LPS-induced inhibitor kinase (IKKα/β) phosphorylation, cis-ampelopsin E significantly decreased LPS-induced IκBα phosphorylation, prevented IκBα degradation, and subsequently reduced the translocating of transcription factor p65 into the nucleus. As a result, the LPS-induced upregulation of NF-κB transcriptional activity was efficiently inhibited. Moreover, it is revealed that cis-ampelopsin E inhibited LPS-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) expression, cPLA2 activation and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production. These results, taken together, suggested that cis-ampelopsin E might exert potential anti-inflammatory effects via blockage of the NF-κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiange Cai
- School of Life Science, Liaoning University, China
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29
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Toxicology and pharmacology of selenium: emphasis on synthetic organoselenium compounds. Arch Toxicol 2011; 85:1313-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0720-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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30
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Yin Z, Lee E, Ni M, Jiang H, Milatovic D, Rongzhu L, Farina M, Rocha JBT, Aschner M. Methylmercury-induced alterations in astrocyte functions are attenuated by ebselen. Neurotoxicology 2011; 32:291-9. [PMID: 21300091 PMCID: PMC3079013 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Methylmercury (MeHg) preferentially accumulates in glia of the central nervous system (CNS), but its toxic mechanisms have yet to be fully recognized. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that MeHg induces neurotoxicity via oxidative stress mechanisms, and that these effects are attenuated by the antioxidant, ebselen. Rat neonatal primary cortical astrocytes were pretreated with or without 10 μM ebselen for 2h followed by MeHg (0, 1, 5, and 10 μM) treatments. MeHg-induced changes in astrocytic [(3)H]-glutamine uptake were assessed along with changes in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ(m)), using the potentiometric dye tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester (TMRE). Western blot analysis was used to detect MeHg-induced ERK (extracellular-signal related kinase) phosphorylation and caspase-3 activation. MeHg treatment significantly decreased (p<0.05) astrocytic [(3)H]-glutamine uptake at all time points and concentrations. Ebselen fully reversed MeHg's (1 μM) effect on [(3)H]-glutamine uptake at 1 min. At higher MeHg concentrations, ebselen partially reversed the MeHg-induced astrocytic inhibition of [(3)H]-glutamine uptake [at 1 min (5 and 10 μM) (p<0.05); 5 min (1, 5 and 10 μM) (p<0.05)]. MeHg treatment (1h) significantly (p<0.05) dissipated the ΔΨ(m) in astrocytes as evidenced by a decrease in mitochondrial TMRE fluorescence. Ebselen fully reversed the effect of 1 μM MeHg treatment for 1h on astrocytic ΔΨ(m) and partially reversed the effect of 5 and 10 μM MeHg treatments for 1h on ΔΨ(m). In addition, ebselen inhibited MeHg-induced phosphorylation of ERK (p<0.05) and blocked MeHg-induced activation of caspase-3 (p<0.05-0.01). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that MeHg exerts its toxic effects via oxidative stress and that the phosphorylation of ERK and the dissipation of the astrocytic mitochondrial membrane potential are involved in MeHg toxicity. In addition, the protective effects elicited by ebselen reinforce the idea that organic selenocompounds represent promising strategies to counteract MeHg-induced neurotoxicity.
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MESH Headings
- Analysis of Variance
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Antioxidants/pharmacology
- Astrocytes/drug effects
- Astrocytes/metabolism
- Astrocytes/pathology
- Azoles/pharmacology
- Blotting, Western
- Caspase 3/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Cytoprotection
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Environmental Pollutants/toxicity
- Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinases/metabolism
- Glutamine/metabolism
- Isoindoles
- Membrane Potential, Mitochondrial/drug effects
- Mercury Poisoning, Nervous System/etiology
- Mercury Poisoning, Nervous System/metabolism
- Mercury Poisoning, Nervous System/pathology
- Methylmercury Compounds/toxicity
- Microscopy, Fluorescence
- Mitochondria/drug effects
- Mitochondria/metabolism
- Neuroprotective Agents/pharmacology
- Organoselenium Compounds/pharmacology
- Oxidative Stress/drug effects
- Phosphorylation
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaobao Yin
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Eunsook Lee
- Department of Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Mingwei Ni
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Haiyan Jiang
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Dejan Milatovic
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Lu Rongzhu
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Marcelo Farina
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Joao B. T. Rocha
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Michael Aschner
- Departments of Pediatrics and Pharmacology, the Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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31
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Maes M, Galecki P, Chang YS, Berk M. A review on the oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) pathways in major depression and their possible contribution to the (neuro)degenerative processes in that illness. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:676-92. [PMID: 20471444 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 774] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 04/17/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews the body of evidence that major depression is accompanied by a decreased antioxidant status and by induction of oxidative and nitrosative (IO&NS) pathways. Major depression is characterized by significantly lower plasma concentrations of a number of key antioxidants, such as vitamin E, zinc and coenzyme Q10, and a lowered total antioxidant status. Lowered antioxidant enzyme activity, e.g. glutathione peroxidase (GPX), is another hallmark of depression. The abovementioned lowered antioxidant capacity may impair protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS), causing damage to fatty acids, proteins and DNA by oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS). Increased ROS in depression is demonstrated by increased levels of plasma peroxides and xanthine oxidase. Damage caused by O&NS is shown by increased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), a by-product of polyunsaturated fatty acid peroxidation and arachidonic acid; and increased 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine, indicating oxidative DNA damage. There is also evidence in major depression, that O&NS may have changed inactive autoepitopes to neoantigens, which have acquired immunogenicity and serve as triggers to bypass immunological tolerance, causing (auto)immune responses. Thus, depression is accompanied by increased levels of plasma IgG antibodies against oxidized LDL; and increased IgM-mediated immune responses against membrane fatty acids, like phosphatidyl inositol (Pi); oleic, palmitic, and myristic acid; and NO modified amino-acids, e.g. NO-tyrosine, NO-tryptophan and NO-arginine; and NO-albumin. There is a significant association between depression and polymorphisms in O&NS genes, like manganese superoxide dismutase, catalase, and myeloperoxidase. Animal models of depression very consistently show lowered antioxidant defences and activated O&NS pathways in the peripheral blood and the brain. In animal models of depression, antidepressants consistently increase lowered antioxidant levels and normalize the damage caused by O&NS processes. Antioxidants, such as N-acetyl-cysteine, compounds that mimic GPX activity, and zinc exhibit antidepressive effects. This paper reviews the pathways by which lowered antioxidants and O&NS may contribute to depression, and the (neuro)degenerative processes that accompany that illness. It is concluded that aberrations in O&NS pathways are--together with the inflammatory processes--key components of depression. All in all, the results suggest that depression belongs to the spectrum of (neuro)degenerative disorders.
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Holloway PM, Smith HK, Renshaw D, Flower RJ, Getting SJ, Gavins FNE. Targeting the melanocortin receptor system for anti-stroke therapy. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010; 32:90-8. [PMID: 21185610 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2010.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2010] [Revised: 11/23/2010] [Accepted: 11/24/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The melanocortin receptors are a subfamily of G-protein-coupled, rhodopsin-like receptors that are rapidly being acknowledged as an extremely promising target for pharmacological intervention in a variety of different inflammatory pathologies, including stroke. Stroke continues to be a leading cause of death worldwide, with risk factors including smoking, diabetes, hypertension and obesity. The pathophysiology of stroke is highly complex: reintroduction of blood flow to the infarcted brain region is paramount in limiting ischaemic damage caused by stroke, yet a concomitant inflammatory response can compound tissue damage. The possibilities of pro-resolving treatments that target this inflammatory response have only recently begun to be explored. This review discusses the endogenous roles of the melanocortin system in reducing characterized aspects of inflammation, and how these, together with potent neuroprotective actions, suggest its potential as a therapeutic target in stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Holloway
- Wolfson Neuroscience Laboratories, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
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Yamagata K, Tagami M, Yamori Y. Neuronal vulnerability of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats to ischemia and its prevention with antioxidants such as vitamin E. Neuroscience 2010; 170:1-7. [PMID: 20633610 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP/Izm) develop severe hypertension, and more than 95% of them die of cerebral stroke. Hypoxic stimulation followed by oxygen reperfusion induces neuronal damage in both normotensive Wistar Kyoto/Izm (WKY/Izm) and SHRSP/Izm rats, and the percentage of neurons that undergo apoptosis during hypoxia-reperfusion is markedly higher in SHRSP/Izm rats than in WKY/Izm rats. The biochemical characteristics of the SHRSP/Izm rats, unlike those of WKY/Izm rats, might act as a factor in the stroke proneness of SHRSP/Izm rats. In the hippocampus, the formation of hydroxyl radicals and the cerebral blood flow-independent formation of nitric oxide (NO) were strongly increased after reperfusion in SHRSP/Izm rats, and the neuronal expression of the thioredoxin and Bcl-2 genes was significantly decreased in the SHRSP/Izm rats compared with the WKY/Izm rats. On the other hand, the effects of antioxidants against neuronal death associated with cerebral ischemia-reperfusion were stronger in the SHRSP/Izm rats, in which the addition of vitamin E or ebselen almost completely inhibited neuronal death. Namely, the addition of 100 microg/ml of vitamin E under hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) conditions completely inhibited WKY and SHRSP/Izm neuronal death. Vitamin E exerts a marked inhibitory effect against neuronal damage via its incorporation into mitochondrial membranes, where it captures reactive oxygen and free radicals. The susceptibility of neurons to apoptosis in SHRSP/Izm rats is partly due to an insufficiency of mitochondrial redox regulation and apoptosis-inhibitory proteins. In this review, we describe the neuronal vulnerability of SHRSP/Izm rats induced by cerebral ischemia and the effects of antioxidants such as vitamin E.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yamagata
- Department of Food Bioscience and Biotechnology, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa-shi, Japan.
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Yamagata K, Kitazawa T, Shinoda M, Tagawa C, Chino M, Matsufuji H. Stroke status evoked adhesion molecule genetic alterations in astrocytes isolated from stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats and the apigenin inhibition of their expression. Stroke Res Treat 2009; 2010. [PMID: 20700422 PMCID: PMC2911588 DOI: 10.4061/2010/386389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the possibility that the expression of adhesion molecules is regulated differently in cultured astrocytes from stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP/IZM) rats than in those from Wistar Kyoto rats (WKY/IZM) by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) or hypoxia and reoxygenation (H/R) and the inhibitory effects of apigenin. It was found that the expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) by TNF-α in astrocytes isolated from SHRSP/IZM was increased compared with that in WKY/IZM. The expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) mRNA induced by H/R in SHRSP/IZM astrocytes was increased compared with that in normal oxygen concentrations. Apigenin strongly attenuated TNF-α-induced VCAM-1 mRNA and protein expression and suppressed the adhesion of U937 cells and SHRSP/IZM astrocytes. These results suggest that the expression levels of adhesion molecules during H/R affect disease outcome and can drive SHRSP/IZM to stroke. It is suggested that apigenin regulates adhesion molecule expression in reactive astrocytes during ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Yamagata
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University (NUBS), Kanagawa 252-8510, Japan
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Lakhan SE, Kirchgessner A, Hofer M. Inflammatory mechanisms in ischemic stroke: therapeutic approaches. J Transl Med 2009; 7:97. [PMID: 19919699 PMCID: PMC2780998 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-7-97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 782] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute ischemic stroke is the third leading cause of death in industrialized countries and the most frequent cause of permanent disability in adults worldwide. Despite advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia, therapeutic options remain limited. Only recombinant tissue-plasminogen activator (rt-PA) for thrombolysis is currently approved for use in the treatment of this devastating disease. However, its use is limited by its short therapeutic window (three hours), complications derived essentially from the risk of hemorrhage, and the potential damage from reperfusion/ischemic injury. Two important pathophysiological mechanisms involved during ischemic stroke are oxidative stress and inflammation. Brain tissue is not well equipped with antioxidant defenses, so reactive oxygen species and other free radicals/oxidants, released by inflammatory cells, threaten tissue viability in the vicinity of the ischemic core. This review will discuss the molecular aspects of oxidative stress and inflammation in ischemic stroke and potential therapeutic strategies that target neuroinflammation and the innate immune system. Currently, little is known about endogenous counterregulatory immune mechanisms. However, recent studies showing that regulatory T cells are major cerebroprotective immunomodulators after stroke suggest that targeting the endogenous adaptive immune response may offer novel promising neuroprotectant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaheen E Lakhan
- Global Neuroscience Initiative Foundation, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Lin TT, Wang BM, Li XY, Pan Y, Wang W, Mu Y, Liu JQ, Shen JC, Luo GM. An insight into the protection of rat liver against ischemia/reperfusion injury by 2-selenium-bridged beta-cyclodextrin. Hepatol Res 2009; 39:1125-36. [PMID: 19624763 DOI: 10.1111/j.1872-034x.2009.00545.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
AIM The reperfusion following liver ischemia results in the damage and apoptosis of hepatocytes. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects and mechanism of a new synthesized glutathione peroxidase (GPX) mimic, 2-selenium-bridged beta-cyclodextrin (2-SeCD), on rat liver ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. METHODS Male Wistar rats (n = 32) were randomly divided into four groups: I. sham-operated group, II. I/R group, III. I/R +2-SeCD group, IV. I/R + Ebselen group. Hepatic I/R was administered by 90 min of ischemia and 12 h of reperfusion. Liver tissues were collected at the end of reperfusion period for measurement of various biochemical parameters. RESULTS The serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity and tissue malondialdehyde, myeloperoxidase levels were increased in I/R group, while the increase was significantly reduced by 2-SeCD treatment. The glutathione level, depressed by I/R, was elevated back to normal levels by treatment with 2-SeCD. Severe hepatic damage were observed by light and transmission electron microscopy whilst pretreatment with 2-SeCD resulted in tissue and cellular preservation. Furthermore, 2-SeCD reduced cytochrome c release from mitochondria and subsequent DNA fragmentation by regulating Bcl-2/Bax expression ratio. RESULTS suggested that 2-SeCD was more effective than ebselen in the reversal of the alteration in tissue structural and biochemical parameters caused by I/R injury. CONCLUSION 2-selenium-bridged beta-cyclodextrin playes an important role in the protection of liver against I/R injury and this treatment may be a novel pharmacological agent for liver surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Ting Lin
- Key laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Seo JY, Lee CH, Cho JH, Choi JH, Yoo KY, Kim DW, Park OK, Li H, Choi SY, Hwang IK, Won MH. Neuroprotection of ebselen against ischemia/reperfusion injury involves GABA shunt enzymes. J Neurol Sci 2009; 285:88-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2009.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Yamagata K, Ichinose S, Tagawa C, Tagami M. Vitamin E Regulates SMase Activity, GSH levels, and Inhibits Neuronal Death in Stroke-Prone Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats during Hypoxia and Reoxygenation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.6030/1939-067x-2.2.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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