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Nguyen TV, Yamanaka K, Tomita K, Zubcevic J, Gouraud SSS, Waki H. Impact of exercise on brain-bone marrow interactions in chronic stress: potential mechanisms preventing stress-induced hypertension. Physiol Genomics 2023; 55:222-234. [PMID: 36939204 PMCID: PMC10151049 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00168.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined the effect of chronic restraint stress and the counteractive effects of daily exercise on the molecular basis of the brain-bone marrow (BM) interactions, by especially focusing on the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. Male Wistar rats were assigned into control, restraint stress, and stress + daily spontaneous exercise (SE) groups. BM and hypothalamic gene expression profiles were examined through the undertaking of RT-PCR and microarrays, respectively. The inflammatory blood cell population was investigated through flow cytometry. Through the use of immunohistochemistry, we examined the presence of BM-derived C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2)-expressing microglial cells in the rat PVN. The gene expression levels of BM inflammatory factors such as those of interleukin 1 beta and CCR2, and the inflammatory blood cell population were found to be significantly higher in both restrained groups compared with control group. Interestingly, chronic restraint stress alone activated the recruitment of BM-derived CCR2-expressing microglial cells into the PVN, whereas daily spontaneous exercise prevented it. A notable finding was that restraint stress upregulated relative gene expression of hypothalamic matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP3), which increases the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and that exercise managed to normalize it. Moreover, relative expression of some hypothalamic genes directly involved in the facilitation of cell migration was downregulated by daily exercise. Our findings suggest that daily spontaneous exercise can reduce the numbers of BM-derived CCR2-expressing microglial cells into the PVN through the prevention of stress-induced changes in the hypothalamic gene expression.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Chronic restraint stress can upregulate MMP3 gene expression in the rat hypothalamus, whereas daily spontaneous exercise can prevent this stress-induced effect. Stress-induced BM-derived inflammatory cell recruitment into the rat PVN can be prevented by daily spontaneous exercise. Stress-induced increase of hypothalamic MMP3 gene expression may be responsible for BBB injury, thereby allowing for BM-derived inflammatory cells to be recruited and to accumulate in the rat PVN, and to be subsequently involved in the onset of stress-induced hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thu Van Nguyen
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
- Department of Military Occupational Medicine, Vietnam Military Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Ko Yamanaka
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Keisuke Tomita
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Jasenka Zubcevic
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States
| | - Sabine S S Gouraud
- College of Liberal Arts, International Christian University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidefumi Waki
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
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Petrella C, Nenna R, Petrarca L, Tarani F, Paparella R, Mancino E, Di Mattia G, Conti MG, Matera L, Bonci E, Ceci FM, Ferraguti G, Gabanella F, Barbato C, Di Certo MG, Cavalcanti L, Minni A, Midulla F, Tarani L, Fiore M. Serum NGF and BDNF in Long-COVID-19 Adolescents: A Pilot Study. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12051162. [PMID: 35626317 PMCID: PMC9140550 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12051162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 (COronaVIrus Disease 19) is an infectious disease also known as an acute respiratory syndrome caused by the SARS-CoV-2. Although in children and adolescents SARS-CoV-2 infection produces mostly mild or moderate symptoms, in a certain percentage of recovered young people a condition of malaise, defined as long-COVID-19, remains. To date, the risk factors for the development of long-COVID-19 are not completely elucidated. Neurotrophins such as NGF (Nerve Growth Factor) and BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor) are known to regulate not only neuronal growth, survival and plasticity, but also to influence cardiovascular, immune, and endocrine systems in physiological and/or pathological conditions; to date only a few papers have discussed their potential role in COVID-19. In the present pilot study, we aimed to identify NGF and BDNF changes in the serum of a small cohort of male and female adolescents that contracted the infection during the second wave of the pandemic (between September and October 2020), notably in the absence of available vaccines. Blood withdrawal was carried out when the recruited adolescents tested negative for the SARS-CoV-2 (“post-infected COVID-19”), 30 to 35 days after the last molecular test. According to their COVID-19 related outcomes, the recruited individuals were divided into three groups: asymptomatics, acute symptomatics and symptomatics that over time developed long-COVID-19 symptoms (“future long-COVID-19”). As a control group, we analyzed the serum of age-matched healthy controls that did not contract the infection. Inflammatory biomarkers (TNF-α, TGF-β), MCP-1, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12) were also analyzed with the free oxygen radicals’ presence as an oxidative stress index. We showed that NGF serum content was lower in post-infected-COVID-19 individuals when compared to healthy controls; BDNF levels were found to be higher compared to healthy individuals only in post-infected-COVID-19 symptomatic and future long-COVID-19 girls, leaving the BDNF levels unchanged in asymptomatic individuals if compared to controls. Oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers were unchanged in male and female adolescents, except for TGF-β that, similarly to BDNF, was higher in post-infected-COVID-19 symptomatic and future long-COVID-19 girls. We predicted that NGF and/or BDNF could be used as early biomarkers of COVID-19 morbidity in adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Petrella
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC-CNR), Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (C.P.); (F.G.); (C.B.); (M.G.D.C.)
| | - Raffaella Nenna
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Laura Petrarca
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Francesca Tarani
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Roberto Paparella
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Enrica Mancino
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Greta Di Mattia
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Maria Giulia Conti
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Luigi Matera
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Enea Bonci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (E.B.); (F.M.C.); (G.F.)
| | - Flavio Maria Ceci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (E.B.); (F.M.C.); (G.F.)
| | - Giampiero Ferraguti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (E.B.); (F.M.C.); (G.F.)
| | - Francesca Gabanella
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC-CNR), Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (C.P.); (F.G.); (C.B.); (M.G.D.C.)
| | - Christian Barbato
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC-CNR), Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (C.P.); (F.G.); (C.B.); (M.G.D.C.)
| | - Maria Grazia Di Certo
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC-CNR), Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (C.P.); (F.G.); (C.B.); (M.G.D.C.)
| | - Luca Cavalcanti
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Antonio Minni
- Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (L.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Fabio Midulla
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Luigi Tarani
- Department of Maternal Infantile and Urological Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (R.N.); (L.P.); (F.T.); (R.P.); (E.M.); (G.D.M.); (M.G.C.); (L.M.); (F.M.); (L.T.)
| | - Marco Fiore
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology (IBBC-CNR), Department of Sensory Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Roma, Italy; (C.P.); (F.G.); (C.B.); (M.G.D.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Ceci FM, Ferraguti G, Petrella C, Greco A, Tirassa P, Iannitelli A, Ralli M, Vitali M, Ceccanti M, Chaldakov GN, Versacci P, Fiore M. Nerve Growth Factor, Stress and Diseases. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:2943-2959. [PMID: 32811396 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327999200818111654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Stress is a constant threat for homeostasis and is represented by different extrinsic and intrinsic stimuli (stressors, Hans Selye's "noxious agents"), such as aggressive behavior, fear, diseases, physical activity, drugs, surgical injury, and environmental and physiological changes. Our organisms respond to stress by activating the adaptive stress system to activate compensatory responses for restoring homeostasis. Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) was discovered as a signaling molecule involved in survival, protection, differentiation, and proliferation of sympathetic and peripheral sensory neurons. NGF mediates stress with an important role in translating environmental stimuli into physiological and pathological feedbacks since NGF levels undergo important variations after exposure to stressful events. Psychological stress, lifestyle stress, and oxidative stress are well known to increase the risk of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorders, bipolar disorder, alcohol use disorders and metabolic disorders such as metabolic syndrome. This review reports recent works describing the activity of NGF in mental and metabolic disorders related to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio Maria Ceci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Giampiero Ferraguti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Carla Petrella
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, IBBC-CNR, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Greco
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Tirassa
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, IBBC-CNR, Rome, Italy
| | - Angela Iannitelli
- Department of Biotechnology and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Ralli
- Department of Sense Organs, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Mauro Ceccanti
- Centro Riferimento Alcologico Regione Lazio, ASL Roma 1, Rome, Italy
| | - George N Chaldakov
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University, and Institute for Advanced Study, Varna, Bulgaria
| | - Paolo Versacci
- Department of Pediatrics, Sapienza University Hospital of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Fiore
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, IBBC-CNR, Rome, Italy
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Bhakta A, Gavini K, Yang E, Lyman-Henley L, Parameshwaran K. Chronic traumatic stress impairs memory in mice: Potential roles of acetylcholine, neuroinflammation and corticotropin releasing factor expression in the hippocampus. Behav Brain Res 2017; 335:32-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Gorbunova AA, Kudryashova IV, Manolova AO, Novikova MR, Stepanichev MY, Gulyaeva NV. Effects of individual stressors used in a battery of “chronic unpredictable stress” on long-term plasticity in the hippocampus of juvenile rats. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2017. [DOI: 10.21307/ane-2017-058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Groh A, Jahn K, Burkert A, Neyazi A, Schares L, Janke E, Rehme M, Schuster R, Hillemacher T, Bleich S, Frieling H, Heberlein A. Epigenetic Regulation of the Promotor Region of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-A and Nerve Growth Factor in Opioid-Maintained Patients. Eur Addict Res 2017; 23:249-259. [PMID: 29224006 DOI: 10.1159/000485030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The nerve growth factor (NGF) and the vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) may be of importance for psychiatric diseases including substance use disorders. The aim of the study was to identify differences in the regulation of both neuropeptides via the DNA-methylation status of the promotor regions of NGF and VEGF-A in different forms of maintenance therapy for opioid dependence and the related stress regulation via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. METHODS We compared methylation levels of opioid-dependent patients receiving treatment with diamorphine (n = 28) or levomethadone (n = 54) and similar levels in a healthy control group (n = 72). RESULTS There was a significantly higher methylation of VEGF-A in opioid-maintained patients with levomethadone compared to that in the control group (estimated marginal means [EMM] [SE]): 0.036 [0.003] vs. 0.020 [0.003]; p < 0.001). We performed a cluster analysis for NGF, splitting up the results in 4 clusters. We found significant changes in methylation rates of the opioid-maintained patients compared to the controls in cluster I ([EMM] [SE]: 0.064 [0.005] vs. 0.084 [0.006]; p = 0.03), cluster II ([EMM] [SE]: 0.133 [0.013] vs. 0.187 [0.014]; p < 0.001) and cluster III ([EMM] [SE]: 0.190 [0.014] vs. 0.128 [0.016]; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The results are of importance, as they indicate that long-term changes in stress regulation regulated by neurotrophines are a crucial part of the symptomatology of opioid dependence, thus influencing drug consumption and the different forms of opioid-maintenance therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Groh
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Kirsten Jahn
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexandra Burkert
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Alexandra Neyazi
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Laura Schares
- Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Eva Janke
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marie Rehme
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rilana Schuster
- Department of Addictive Behavior and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Thomas Hillemacher
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefan Bleich
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Helge Frieling
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Annemarie Heberlein
- Center for Addiction Research (CARe), Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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Ogundele OM, Lee CC, Francis J. Age-dependent alterations to paraventricular nucleus insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor as a possible link between sympathoexcitation and inflammation. J Neurochem 2016; 139:706-721. [PMID: 27626839 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 08/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Modifications to neural circuits of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN) have been implicated in sympathoexcitation and systemic cardiovascular dysfunction. However, to date, the role of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) expression on PVN pathophysiology is unknown. Using confocal immunofluorescence quantification and electrophysiological recordings from acute PVN slices, we investigated the mechanism through which age-dependent IGF-1R depletion contributes to the progression of inflammation and sympathoexcitation in the PVN of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Four and twenty weeks old SHR and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats were used for this study. Our data showed that angiotensin I/II and pro-inflammatory high mobility box group protein 1 (HMGB1) exhibited increased expression in the PVN of SHR versus WKY at 4 weeks (p < 0.01), and were even more highly expressed with age in SHR (p < 0.001). This correlated with a significant decrease in IGF-1R expression, with age, in the PVN of SHR when compared with WKY (p < 0.001) and were accompanied by related changes in astrocytes and microglia. In subsequent analyses, we found an age-dependent change in the expression of proteins associated with IGF-1R signaling pathways involved in inflammatory responses and synaptic function in the PVN. MAPK/ErK was more highly expressed in the PVN of SHR by the fourth week (p < 0.001; vs. WKY), while expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (p < 0.001) and calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinase II alpha (CamKIIα; p < 0.001) were significantly decreased by the 4th and 20th week, respectively. Age-dependent changes in MAPK/ErK expression in the PVN correlated with an increase in the expression of vesicular glutamate transporter (p < 0.001 vs. WKY), while decreased levels of CamKIIα was associated with a decreased expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (p < 0.001) by the 20th week. In addition, reduced labeling for ϒ-aminobutyric acid in the PVN of SHR (p < 0.001) correlated with a decrease in neuronal nitric oxide synthase labeling (p < 0.001) when compared with the WKY by the 20th week. Electrophysiological recordings from neurons in acute slice preparations of the PVN of 4 weeks old SHR revealed spontaneous post-synaptic currents of higher frequency when compared with neurons from WKY PNV slices of the same age (p < 0.001; n = 14 cells). This also correlated with an increase in PSD-95 in the PVN of SHR when compared with the WKY (p < 0.001). Overall, we found an age-dependent reduction of IGF-1R, and related altered expression of associated downstream signaling molecules that may represent a link between the concurrent progression of synaptic dysfunction and inflammation in the PVN of SHR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olalekan M Ogundele
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Charles C Lee
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Joseph Francis
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
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Badowska‐Szalewska E, Ludkiewicz B, Krawczyk R, Moryś J. The impact of two mild stressors on the nerve growth factor (NGF) immunoreactivity in the amygdala in aged rats compared to adult ones. Int J Dev Neurosci 2015; 49:6-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2015.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Badowska‐Szalewska
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyMedical University of GdańskDębinki st. 180‐211GdańskPoland
| | - Beata Ludkiewicz
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyMedical University of GdańskDębinki st. 180‐211GdańskPoland
| | - Rafał Krawczyk
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyMedical University of GdańskDębinki st. 180‐211GdańskPoland
| | - Janusz Moryś
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyMedical University of GdańskDębinki st. 180‐211GdańskPoland
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