Modulation of Learning and Memory: A Shared Framework for Interference and Generalization

How Prior Knowledge, Gesture Instruction, and Interference After Instruction Interact to Influence Learning of Mathematical Equivalence

Although children learn more when teachers gesture, it is not clear how gesture supports learning. Here, we sought to investigate the nature of the memory processes that underlie the observed benefits of gesture on lasting learning. We hypothesized that instruction with gesture might create memory representations that are particularly resistant to interference. We investigated this possibility in a classroom study with 402 second- and third-grade children. Participants received classroom-level instruction in mathematical equivalence using videos with or without accompanying gesture. After instruction, children solved problems that were either visually similar to the problems that were taught, and consistent with an operational interpretation of the equal sign (interference), or visually distinct from equivalence problems and without an equal sign (control) in order to assess the role of gesture in resisting interference after learning. Gesture facilitated learning, but the effects of gesture and interference varied depending on type of problem being solved and the strategies that children used to solve problems prior to instruction. Some children benefitted from gesture, while others did not. These findings have implications for understanding the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of gesture on mathematical learning, revealing that gesture does not work via a general mechanism like enhancing attention or engagement that would apply to children with all forms of prior knowledge.

[Formula: see text] Perinatal and social risk of poor language, memory, and learning outcomes in a cohort of extremely and very preterm children

Children born extremely preterm (EPT) or very preterm (VPT) are at risk of neurodevelopmental impairment. How the interaction between biological and social risk factors affects cognitive development has not yet been completely understood. The objectives of this study are to analyze and compare the language, memory, and learning outcomes of five-year-old children born EPT (<28 weeks' gestational age) and VPT (28-31+6 weeks' gestational age) and to determine the risk of having poor outcomes attending to perinatal and maternal characteristics. The analysis included 377 children born VPT (n = 284) and EPT (n = 93) in 2011-2012. Maternal, neonatal, and clinical information was obtained at birth, and maternal education was obtained at five years using a parental questionnaire. At five years, the language, memory, and learning outcomes were assessed with the developmental NEuroPSYchological assessment second edition (NEPSY-II®). Logistic regression models were applied to assess the association of biological and social risk factors with performance below the expected level for the child's age in language, memory, and learning subtests. Lower maternal age and education increased the odds of having language performance below the expected level for the child's age, while lower maternal educational level and gestational age increased the likelihood of having memory performance below the expected level. Children living in the most social disadvantage contexts are at a higher risk of suboptimal cognitive development. Implementing intervention programs in disadvantaged contexts and targeting specific cognitive domains may enable EPT and VPT children to reach and fulfill their potential in society.

Reactivation-induced memory integration prevents proactive interference in perceptual learning

We acquire perceptual skills through experience to adapt ourselves to the changing environment. Accomplishing an effective skill acquisition is a main purpose of perceptual learning research. Given the often observed learning effect specificity, multiple perceptual learnings with shared parameters could serve to improve the generalization of the learning effect. However, the interference between the overlapping memory traces of different learnings may impede this effort. Here, we trained human participants on an orientation discrimination task. We observed a proactive interference effect that the first training blocked the second training at its untrained location. This was a more pronounced effect than the well-known location specificity in perceptual learning. We introduced a short reactivation of the first training before the second training and successfully eliminated the proactive interference when the second training was inside the reconsolidation time window of the reactivated first training. Interestingly, we found that practicing an irrelevant task at the location of the second training immediately after the reactivation of the first training could also restore the effect of the second training but in a smaller magnitude, even if the second training was conducted outside of the reconsolidation window. We proposed a two-level mechanism of reactivation-induced memory integration to account for these results. The reactivation-based procedure could integrate either the previously trained and untrained locations or the two trainings at these locations, depending on the activated representations during the reconsolidation process. The findings provide us with new insight into the roles of long-term memory mechanisms in perceptual learning.

Reactivation-induced motor skill modulation does not operate at a rapid micro-timescale level

Abundant evidence shows that consolidated memories are susceptible to modifications following their reactivation. Processes of memory consolidation and reactivation-induced skill modulation have been commonly documented after hours or days. Motivated by studies showing rapid consolidation in early stages of motor skill acquisition, here we asked whether motor skill memories are susceptible to modifications following brief reactivations, even at initial stages of learning. In a set of experiments, we collected crowdsourced online motor sequence data to test whether post-encoding interference and performance enhancement occur following brief reactivations in early stages of learning. Results indicate that memories forming during early learning are not susceptible to interference nor to enhancement within a rapid reactivation-induced time window, relative to control conditions. This set of evidence suggests that reactivation-induced motor skill memory modulation might be dependent on consolidation at the macro-timescale level, requiring hours or days to occur.

The Role of the Adenosine System on Emotional and Cognitive Disturbances Induced by Ethanol Binge Drinking in the Immature Brain and the Beneficial Effects of Caffeine

Binge drinking intake is the most common pattern of ethanol consumption by adolescents, which elicits emotional disturbances, mainly anxiety and depressive symptoms, as well as cognitive alterations. Ethanol exposure may act on the adenosine neuromodulation system by increasing adenosine levels, consequently increasing the activation of adenosine receptors in the brain. The adenosine modulation system is involved in the control of mood and memory behavior. However, there is a gap in the knowledge about the exact mechanisms related to ethanol exposure’s hazardous effects on the immature brain (i.e., during adolescence) and the role of the adenosine system thereupon. The present review attempts to provide a comprehensive picture of the role of the adenosinergic system on emotional and cognitive disturbances induced by ethanol during adolescence, exploring the potential benefits of caffeine administration in view of its action as a non-selective antagonist of adenosine receptors.

Brief memory reactivations induce learning in the numeric domain

Learning of arithmetic facts such as the multiplication table requires time-consuming, repeated practice. In light of evidence indicating that reactivation of encoded memories can modulate learning and memory processes at the synaptic, system and behavioral levels, we asked whether brief memory reactivations can induce human learning in the numeric domain. Adult participants performed a number-fact retrieval task in which they learned arbitrary numeric facts. Following encoding and a baseline test, 3 passive, brief reactivation sessions of only 40 s each were conducted on separate days. Learning was evaluated in a retest session. Results showed reactivations induced learning, with improved performance at retest relative to baseline test. Furthermore, performance was superior compared to a control group performing test-retest sessions without reactivations, who showed significant memory deterioration. A standard practice group completed active-retrieval sessions on 3 separate days, and showed significant learning gains. Interestingly, while these gains were higher than those of the reactivations group, subjects showing reactivation-induced learning were characterized by superior efficiency relative to standard practice subjects, with higher rate of improvement per practice time. A follow-up long-term retention experiment showed that 30 days following initial practice, weekly brief reactivations reduced forgetting, with participants performing superior to controls undergoing the same initial practice without reactivations. Overall, the results demonstrate that brief passive reactivations induce efficient learning and reduce forgetting within a numerical context. Time-efficient practice in the numeric domain carries implications for enhancement of learning strategies in daily-life settings.

Simple contextual cueing prevents retroactive interference in short-term perceptual training of orientation detection tasks

Perceptual training of multiple tasks suffers from interference between the trained tasks. Here, we conducted five psychophysical experiments with separate groups of participants to investigate the possibility of preventing the interference in short-term perceptual training. We trained the participants to detect two orientations of Gabor stimuli in two adjacent days at the same retinal location and examined the interference of training effects between the two orientations. The results showed significant retroactive interference from the second orientation to the first orientation (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2). Introducing a 6-h interval between the pre-test and training of the second orientation did not eliminate the interference effect, excluding the interpretation of disrupted reconsolidation as the pre-test of the second orientation may reactivate and destabilize the representation of the first orientation (Experiment 3). Finally, the training of the two orientations was accompanied by fixations in two colors, each serving as a contextual cue for one orientation. The results showed that the retroactive interference was not evident if the participants passively perceived contextual cues during the training and test sessions (Experiment 4). Importantly, this facilitation effect could be observed if the contextual cues appeared only during the training, demonstrating the robustness of the effect (Experiment 5). Our findings suggest that the retroactive interference effect in short-term perceptual training of orientation detection tasks was likely the result of higher-level factors such as shared contextual cues embedded in the tasks. The efficiency of multiple perceptual trainings could be facilitated by associating the trained tasks with different contextual cues.

A cholinergic medial septum input to medial habenula mediates generalization formation and extinction of visual aversion

Generalization of visual aversion is a critical function of the brain that supports survival, but the underlying neurobiological mechanisms are unclear. We establish a rapid generalization procedure for inducing visual aversion by dynamic stripe images. By using fiber photometry, apoptosis, chemogenetic and optogenetic techniques, and behavioral tests, we find that decreased cholinergic neurons' activity in the medial septum (MS) leads to generalization loss of visual aversion. Strikingly, we identify a projection from MS cholinergic neurons to the medial habenula (MHb) and find that inhibition of the MS→MHb cholinergic circuit disrupts aversion-generalization formation while its continuous activation disrupts subsequent extinction. Further studies show that MS→MHb cholinergic projections modulate the generalization of visual aversion possibly via M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) of downstream neurons coreleasing glutamate and acetylcholine. These findings reveal that the MS→MHb cholinergic circuit is a critical node in aversion-generalization formation and extinction and potentially provides insight into the pathogenesis of affective disorders.

Anterograde interference emerges along a gradient as a function of task similarity: A behavioural study

Anterograde interference emerges when two opposite (B → A) or identical tasks (A → A) are learned in close temporal succession, suggesting that interference cannot be fully accounted for by competing memories. Informed by neurobiological evidence, this work tested the hypothesis that interference depends upon the degree of overlap between the neural networks involved in the learning of two tasks. In a fully within‐subject and counterbalanced design, participants (n = 24) took part in two learning sessions where the putative overlap between learning‐specific neural networks was behaviourally manipulated across four conditions by modifying reach direction and the effector used during gradual visuomotor adaptation. The results showed that anterograde interference emerged regardless of memory competition—that is, to a similar extent in the B → A and A → A conditions—and along a gradient as a function of the tasks' similarity. Specifically, learning under similar reaching conditions generated more anterograde interference than learning under dissimilar reaching conditions, suggesting that putatively overlapping neural networks are required to generate interference. Overall, these results indicate that competing memories are not the sole contributor to anterograde interference and suggest that overlapping neural networks between two learning sessions are required to trigger interference. One discussed possibility is that initial learning modifies the properties of its neural networks to constrain further plasticity induction and learning capabilities, therefore causing anterograde interference in a network‐dependent manner. One implication is that learning‐specific neural networks must be maximally dissociated to minimize the interfering influences of previous learning on subsequent learning.

Replay in minds and machines

Experience-related brain activity patterns reactivate during sleep, wakeful rest, and brief pauses from active behavior. In parallel, machine learning research has found that experience replay can lead to substantial performance improvements in artificial agents. Together, these lines of research suggest replay has a variety of computational benefits for decision-making and learning. Here, we provide an overview of putative computational functions of replay as suggested by machine learning and neuroscientific research. We show that replay can lead to faster learning, less forgetting, reorganization or augmentation of experiences, and support planning and generalization. In addition, we highlight the benefits of reactivating abstracted internal representations rather than veridical memories, and discuss how replay could provide a mechanism to build internal representations that improve learning and decision-making.

Practice Makes Transfer Imperfect: Evidence From Auditory Learning

BACKGROUND

Evidence from motor and visual studies suggests that the ability to generalize learning gains to untrained conditions decreases as the training progresses. This decrease in generalization was suggested to reflect a shift from higher to lower levels of neuronal representations of the task following prolonged training. In the auditory modality, however, the few studies that tested the influence of prolonging training on generalization ability showed no decrease and sometimes even an increase in generalization.

OBJECTIVE

To test the impact of extending training in a basic psychoacoustic task on the ability to generalize the gains attained in training to untrained conditions.

DESIGN

Eighty-two young adults participated in two experiments that differed in the specific training regimen. In both experiments, training was conducted using a difference limen for frequency (DLF) task with an adaptive forced-choice procedure, for either a single- or nine-session training. Following training, generalization to the untrained ear and to an untrained frequency was assessed.

RESULTS

(a) Training induced significant learning (i.e., smaller DLF thresholds) following a single session of training, and more so following nine training sessions; (b) results from the combined data from both experiments showed that the ability to generalize the learning gains to the untrained ear and frequency was limited after the extended DLF training; (c) larger improvements under the trained condition resulted in smaller generalization to the untrained conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of increased specificity with training in the auditory modality support the notion that gradual changes, both quantitative and qualitative, occur in the neural representations of an auditory task during its acquisition. These findings suggest common underlying mechanisms in basic skill learning across different modalities.

Neuromodulation of Visual Cortex Reduces the Intensity of Intrusive Memories

Aversive events can be reexperienced as involuntary and spontaneous mental images of the event. Given that the vividness of retrieved mental images is coupled with elevated visual activation, we tested whether neuromodulation of the visual cortex would reduce the frequency and negative emotional intensity of intrusive memories. Intrusive memories of a viewed trauma film and their accompanied emotional intensity were recorded throughout 5 days. Functional connectivity, measured with resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging prior to film viewing, was used as predictive marker for intrusions-related negative emotional intensity. Results indicated that an interaction between the visual network and emotion processing areas predicted intrusions’ emotional intensity. To test the causal influence of early visual cortex activity on intrusions’ emotional intensity, participants’ memory of the film was reactivated by brief reminders 1 day following film viewing, followed by inhibitory 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over early visual cortex. Results showed that visual cortex inhibitory stimulation reduced the emotional intensity of later intrusions, while leaving intrusion frequency and explicit visual memory intact. Current findings suggest that early visual areas constitute a central node influencing the emotional intensity of intrusive memories for negative events. Potential neuroscience-driven intervention targets designed to downregulate the emotional intensity of intrusive memories are discussed.

Reactivation-induced motor skill learning

Learning motor skills commonly requires repeated execution to achieve gains in performance. Motivated by memory reactivation frameworks predominantly originating from fear-conditioning studies in rodents, which have extended to humans, we asked the following: Could motor skill learning be achieved by brief memory reactivations? To address this question, we had participants encode a motor sequence task in an initial test session, followed by brief task reactivations of only 30 s each, conducted on separate days. Learning was evaluated in a final retest session. The results showed that these brief reactivations induced significant motor skill learning gains. Nevertheless, the efficacy of reactivations was not consistent but determined by the number of consecutive correct sequences tapped during memory reactivations. Highly continuous reactivations resulted in higher learning gains, similar to those induced by full extensive practice, while lower continuity reactivations resulted in minimal learning gains. These results were replicated in a new independent sample of subjects, suggesting that the quality of memory reactivation, reflected by its continuity, regulates the magnitude of learning gains. In addition, the change in noninvasive brain stimulation measurements of corticospinal excitability evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation over primary motor cortex between pre- and postlearning correlated with retest and transfer performance. These results demonstrate a unique form of rapid motor skill learning and may have far-reaching implications, for example, in accelerating motor rehabilitation following neurological injuries.

Great tits who remember more accurately have difficulty forgetting, but variation is not driven by environmental harshness

The causes of individual variation in memory are poorly understood in wild animals. Harsh environments with sparse or rapidly changing food resources are hypothesized to favour more accurate spatial memory to allow animals to return to previously visited patches when current patches are depleted. A potential cost of more accurate spatial memory is proactive interference, where accurate memories block the formation of new memories. This relationship between spatial memory, proactive interference, and harsh environments has only been studied in scatter-hoarding animals. We compare spatial memory accuracy and proactive interference performance of non-scatter hoarding great tits (Parus major) from high and low elevations where harshness increases with elevation. In contrast to studies of scatter-hoarders, we did not find a significant difference between high and low elevation birds in their spatial memory accuracy or proactive interference performance. Using a variance partitioning approach, we report the first among-individual trade-off between spatial memory and proactive interference, uncovering variation in memory at the individual level where selection may act. Although we have no evidence of harsh habitats affecting spatial memory, our results suggest that if elevation produced differences in spatial memory between elevations, we could see concurrent changes in how quickly birds can forget.

Reliance on Visual Input for Balance Skill Transfer in Older Adults: EEG Connectome Analysis Using Minimal Spanning Tree

Skill transfer from trained balance exercises is critical to reduce the rate of falls in older adults, who rely more on vision to control postural responses due to age-dependent sensory reweighting. With an electroencephalography (EEG) minimum spanning tree (MST) structure, the purpose of this study was to compare the organization of supraspinal neural networks of transfer effect after postural training using full and intermittent visual feedbacks for older adults. Thirty-two older adults were randomly assigned to the stroboscopic vision (SV) (n = 16; age = 64.7 ± 3.0 years) and control (16; 66.3 ± 2.7 years) groups for balance training on a stabilometer (target task) with on-line visual feedback. Center-of-pressure characteristics and an MST-based connectome of the weighted phase-lag index during the bilateral stance on a foam surface (transfer task) were compared before and after stabilometer training. The results showed that both the SV and control groups showed improvements in postural stability in the trained task (p < 0.001). However, unlike the control group (p = 0.030), the SV group who received intermittent visual feedback during the stabilometer training failed to reduce the size of postural sway in the anteroposterior direction of the postural transfer task (unstable stance on the foam surface) in the post-test (p = 0.694). In addition, network integration for the transfer task in the post-test was absent in the SV group (p > 0.05). For the control group in the post-test, it manifested with training-related increases in leaf fraction in beta band (p = 0.015) and maximum betweenness in alpha band (p = 0.018), but a smaller diameter in alpha (p = 0.006)/beta (p = 0.021) bands and average eccentricity in alpha band (p = 0.028). In conclusion, stabilometer training with stroboscopic vision impairs generalization of postural skill to unstable stance for older adults. Adequate visual information is a key mediating factor of supraspinal neural networks to carry over balance skill in older adults.

Comprehensive evaluation of differential long non-coding RNA and gene expression in patients with cartilaginous endplate degeneration of cervical vertebra

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging as key regulators in gene expression; however, little is currently known regarding their role in cartilaginous endplate (CE) degeneration (CED) of cervical vertebra. The present study aimed to investigate the expression levels of lncRNAs and analyze their potential functions in CED of cervical vertebra in patients with cervical fracture and cervical spondylosis. Human competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) array was used to analyze lncRNA and mRNA expression levels in CE samples from patients with cervical fracture and cervical spondylosis, who received anterior cervical discectomy and fusion. Differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) or differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and functionally analyzed, using Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses. An lncRNA-microRNA(miRNA)-mRNA ceRNA regulatory network was constructed based on the DELs and DEGs, and the ceRNA network was visualized using Cytoscape 3.7.2 software. In total, one downregulated mRNA, one upregulated miRNA and five downstream regulated lncRNAs were identified using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR in CED and healthy CE samples. A total of 369 lncRNAs and 246 mRNAs were identified as differentially expressed in CE. The GO and KEGG analyses demonstrated that the majority of GO and KEGG enrichments were associated with CED. Furthermore, a ceRNA network was established, including 168 putative miRNA response elements, 189 upregulated and 37 downregulated lncRNAs and 47 upregulated and 10dow regulated DEGs. The present study analyzed the function of DEGs in the ceRNA network and filtered out the same items as in DEG-function enrichment analysis. These results provide a new perspective for an improved understanding of ceRNA-mediated gene regulation in cervical spondylosis, and provide a novel theoretical basis for further studies on the function of lncRNA in cervical spondylosis. However, further experiments are required to validate the results of the present study.

Taking advantage of fear generalization-associated destabilization to attenuate the underlying memory via reconsolidation intervention

Upon retrieval, an aversive memory can undergo destabilization and reconsolidation. A traumatic-like memory, however, may be resistant to this process. The present study sought to contribute with a strategy to overcome this potential issue by investigating whether generalized fear retrieval is susceptible to destabilization-reconsolidation that can be pharmacologically modified. We hypothesized that exposure to a context that elicits moderate generalization levels would allow a malleable memory state. We developed a fear conditioning protocol in context A (cxt-A) paired with yohimbine administration to promote significant fear to a non-conditioned context B (cxt-B) in rats, mimicking the enhanced noradrenergic activity reported after traumatic events in humans. Next, we attempted to impair the reconsolidation phase by administering clonidine (CLO) immediately after exposure to cxt-A, cxt-B, or a third context C (cxt-C) neither conditioned nor generalized. CLO administered post-cxt-B exposure for two consecutive days subsequently resulted in decreased freezing levels in cxt-A. CLO after cxt-B only once, after cxt-A or cxt-C in two consecutive days, or independently of cxt-B exposures did not affect fear in a later test. A 6-h-delay in CLO treatment post-cxt-B exposures produced no effects, and nimodipine administered pre-cxt-B exposures precluded the CLO action. We then quantified the Egr1/Zif268 protein expression following cxt-B exposures and CLO treatments. We found that these factors interact to modulate this memory destabilization-reconsolidation mechanism in the basolateral amygdala but not the dorsal CA1 hippocampus. Altogether, memory destabilization can accompany generalized fear expression; thus, we may exploit it to potentiate reconsolidation blockers' action.

A Common Task Structure Links Together the Fate of Different Types of Memories

Our memories frequently have features in common. For example, a learned sequence of words or actions can follow a common rule, which determines their serial order, despite being composed of very different events [1, 2]. This common abstract structure might link the fates of memories together. We tested this idea by creating different types of memory task: a sequence of words or actions that either did or did not have a common structure. Participants learned one of these memory tasks and then they learned another type of memory task 6 h later, either with or without the same structure. We then tested the newly formed memory's susceptibility to interference. We found that the newly formed memory was protected from interference when it shared a common structure with the earlier memory. Specifically, learning a sequence of words protected a subsequent sequence of actions learned hours later from interference, and conversely, learning a sequence of actions protected a subsequent sequence of words learned hours later from interference provided the sequences shared a common structure. Yet this protection of the newly formed memory came at a cost. The earlier memory had disrupted recall when it had the same rather than a different structure to the newly formed and protected memory. Thus, a common structure can determine what is retained (i.e., protected) and what is modified (i.e., disrupted). Our work reveals that a shared common structure links the fate of otherwise different types of memories together and identifies a novel mechanism for memory modification.

Memories replayed: reactivating past successes and new dilemmas

Our experiences continue to be processed 'offline' in the ensuing hours of both wakefulness and sleep. During these different brain states, the memory formed during our experience is replayed or reactivated. Here, we discuss the unique challenges in studying offline reactivation, the growth in both the experimental and analytical techniques available across different animals from rodents to humans to capture these offline events, the important challenges this innovation has brought, our still modest understanding of how reactivation drives diverse synaptic changes across circuits, and how these changes differ (if at all), and perhaps complement, those at memory formation. Together, these discussions highlight critical emerging issues vital for identifying how reactivation affects circuits, and, in turn, behaviour, and provides a broader context for the contributions in this special issue. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Memory reactivation: replaying events past, present and future'.

Sleep and motor sequence learning consolidation in former iron deficient anemic adolescents

BACKGROUND

Iron deficiency is the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency worldwide. There is evidence that iron deficiency produces alterations in the developing brain, eventually leading to long-lasting effects on various cognitive functions.

METHODS

Here, we investigated motor learning and its consolidation after sleep in adolescents who sustained iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in infancy, compared to healthy controls, in the context of a long-term follow-up Chilean research project. Fifty-three adolescents who formerly had iron deficiency anemia as infants and 40 control adolescents practiced a sequential motor finger tapping task, before and after a night of sleep. Performance was measured at the end of learning, 30 min later (boost effect), and the next morning.

RESULTS

Revealed slower learning in subjects with infant iron deficiency anemia than control subjects, followed by a proportionally similar performance boost at 30 min. Performance remained stable overnight in healthy controls but further improved in infant IDA adolescents, suggesting a beneficial effect of post-training sleep on the consolidation of incompletely learned motor skills. In particular, overnight gains in performance were observed in female, but not male infant iron deficiency anemic subjects, suggesting a gender effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate long-lasting motor learning deficits in infant IDA adolescents and provide support to the hypothesis that post-training sleep might, to some extent, compensate for hampered motor learning during wakefulness.