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Zha X, Zheng G, Skutella T, Kiening K, Unterberg A, Younsi A. Microglia: a promising therapeutic target in spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2025; 20:454-463. [PMID: 38819048 DOI: 10.4103/nrr.nrr-d-23-02044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Microglia are present throughout the central nervous system and are vital in neural repair, nutrition, phagocytosis, immunological regulation, and maintaining neuronal function. In a healthy spinal cord, microglia are accountable for immune surveillance, however, when a spinal cord injury occurs, the microenvironment drastically changes, leading to glial scars and failed axonal regeneration. In this context, microglia vary their gene and protein expression during activation, and proliferation in reaction to the injury, influencing injury responses both favorably and unfavorably. A dynamic and multifaceted injury response is mediated by microglia, which interact directly with neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and neural stem/progenitor cells. Despite a clear understanding of their essential nature and origin, the mechanisms of action and new functions of microglia in spinal cord injury require extensive research. This review summarizes current studies on microglial genesis, physiological function, and pathological state, highlights their crucial roles in spinal cord injury, and proposes microglia as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Zha
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Guoli Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Skutella
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Institute for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karl Kiening
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas Unterberg
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander Younsi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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2
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Huang Y, Hu R, Wu L, He K, Ma R. Immunoregulation of Glia after spinal cord injury: a bibliometric analysis. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1402349. [PMID: 38938572 PMCID: PMC11208308 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1402349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective Immunoregulation is a complex and critical process in the pathological process of spinal cord injury (SCI), which is regulated by various factors and plays an important role in the functional repair of SCI. This study aimed to explore the research hotspots and trends of glial cell immunoregulation after SCI from a bibliometric perspective. Methods Data on publications related to glial cell immunoregulation after SCI, published from 2004 to 2023, were obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection. Countries, institutions, authors, journals, and keywords in the topic were quantitatively analyzed using the R package "bibliometrix", VOSviewer, Citespace, and the Bibliometrics Online Analysis Platform. Results A total of 613 papers were included, with an average annual growth rate of 9.39%. The papers came from 36 countries, with the United States having the highest output, initiating collaborations with 27 countries. Nantong University was the most influential institution. We identified 3,177 authors, of whom Schwartz, m, of the Weizmann Institute of Science, was ranked first regarding both field-specific H-index (18) and average number of citations per document (151.44). Glia ranked first among journals with 2,574 total citations. The keywords "microglia," "activation," "macrophages," "astrocytes," and "neuroinflammation" represented recent hot topics and are expected to remain a focus of future research. Conclusion These findings strongly suggest that the immunomodulatory effects of microglia, astrocytes, and glial cell interactions may be critical in promoting nerve regeneration and repair after SCI. Research on the immunoregulation of glial cells after SCI is emerging, and there should be greater cooperation and communication between countries and institutions to promote the development of this field and benefit more SCI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Huang
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third School of Clinical Medicine (School of Rehabilitation Medicine), Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Rong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third School of Clinical Medicine (School of Rehabilitation Medicine), Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lei Wu
- Department of Acupuncture, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kelin He
- Department of Acupuncture, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruijie Ma
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third School of Clinical Medicine (School of Rehabilitation Medicine), Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- Department of Acupuncture, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
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3
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Stewart AN, Bosse-Joseph CC, Kumari R, Bailey WM, Park KA, Slone VK, Gensel JC. Non-resolving neuroinflammation regulates axon regeneration in chronic spinal cord injury. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.19.590106. [PMID: 38712123 PMCID: PMC11071389 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.19.590106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Chronic spinal cord injury (SCI) lesions retain increased densities of microglia and macrophages. In acute SCI, macrophages induce growth cone collapse, facilitate axon retraction away from lesion boundaries, as well as play a key role in orchestrating the growth-inhibitory glial scar. Little is known about the role of sustained inflammation in chronic SCI, or whether chronic inflammation affects repair and regeneration. We performed transcriptional analysis using the Nanostring Neuropathology panel to characterize the resolution of inflammation into chronic SCI, to characterize the chronic SCI microenvironment, as well as to identify spinal cord responses to macrophage depletion and repopulation using the CSF1R inhibitor, PLX-5622. We determined the ability for macrophage depletion and repopulation to augment axon growth into chronic lesions both with and without regenerative stimulation using neuronal-specific PTEN knockout (PTEN-KO). PTEN-KO was delivered with spinal injections of retrogradely transported adeno associated viruses (AAVrg's). Both transcriptional analyses and immunohistochemistry revealed the ability for PLX-5622 to significantly deplete inflammation around and within chronic SCI lesions, with a return to pre-depleted inflammatory densities after treatment removal. Neuronal-specific transcripts were significantly elevated in mice after inflammatory repopulation, but no significant effects were observed with macrophage depletion alone. Axon densities significantly increased within the lesion after PLX-5622 treatment with a more consistent effect observed in mice with inflammatory repopulation. PTEN-KO did not further increase axon densities within the lesion beyond effects induced by PLX-5622. We identified that PLX-5622 increased axon densities within the lesion that are histologically identified as 5-HT+and CGRP+, both of which are not robustly transduced by AAVrg's. Our work identified that increased macrophage/microglia densities in the chronic SCI environment may be actively retained by homeostatic mechanisms likely affiliated with a sustained elevated expression of CSF1 and other chemokines. Finally, we identify a novel role of sustained inflammation as a prospective barrier to axon regeneration in chronic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N. Stewart
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - Christopher C. Bosse-Joseph
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - Reena Kumari
- Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - William M. Bailey
- Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - Kennedy A. Park
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - Victoria K. Slone
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
| | - John C. Gensel
- Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
- College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, USA
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4
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Perez JC, Poulen G, Cardoso M, Boukhaddaoui H, Gazard CM, Courtand G, Bertrand SS, Gerber YN, Perrin FE. CSF1R inhibition at chronic stage after spinal cord injury modulates microglia proliferation. Glia 2023; 71:2782-2798. [PMID: 37539655 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) induces irreversible autonomic and sensory-motor impairments. A large number of patients exhibit chronic SCI and no curative treatment is currently available. Microglia are predominant immune players after SCI, they undergo highly dynamic processes, including proliferation and morphological modification. In a translational aim, we investigated whether microglia proliferation persists at chronic stage after spinal cord hemisection and whether a brief pharmacological treatment could modulate microglial responses. We first carried out a time course analysis of SCI-induced microglia proliferation associated with morphological analysis up to 84 days post-injury (dpi). Second, we analyzed outcomes on microglia of an oral administration of GW2580, a colony stimulating factor-1 receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor reducing selectively microglia proliferation. After SCI, microglia proliferation remains elevated at 84 dpi. The percentage of proliferative microglia relative to proliferative cells increases over time reaching almost 50% at 84 dpi. Morphological modifications of microglia processes are observed up to 84 dpi and microglia cell body area is transiently increased up to 42 dpi. A transient post-injury GW2580-delivery at two chronic stages after SCI (42 and 84 dpi) reduces microglia proliferation and modifies microglial morphology evoking an overall limitation of secondary inflammation. Finally, transient GW2580-delivery at chronic stage after SCI modulates myelination processes. Together our study shows that there is a persistent microglia proliferation induced by SCI and that a pharmacological treatment at chronic stage after SCI modulates microglial responses. Thus, a transient oral GW2580-delivery at chronic stage after injury may provide a promising therapeutic strategy for chronic SCI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaetan Poulen
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, Montpellier, France
| | - Maida Cardoso
- UMR 5221, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Florence Evelyne Perrin
- MMDN, Univ. Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, Montpellier, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
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5
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Dwyer LJ, Maheshwari S, Levy E, Poznansky MC, Whalen MJ, Sîrbulescu RF. B cell treatment promotes a neuroprotective microenvironment after traumatic brain injury through reciprocal immunomodulation with infiltrating peripheral myeloid cells. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:133. [PMID: 37259118 PMCID: PMC10230748 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02812-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major cause of death and severe disability worldwide. We found previously that treatment with exogenous naïve B cells was associated with structural and functional neuroprotection after TBI. Here, we used a mouse model of unilateral controlled cortical contusion TBI to investigate cellular mechanisms of immunomodulation associated with intraparenchymal delivery of mature naïve B lymphocytes at the time of injury. Exogenous B cells showed a complex time-dependent response in the injury microenvironment, including significantly increased expression of IL-10, IL-35, and TGFβ, but also IL-2, IL-6, and TNFα. After 10 days in situ, B cell subsets expressing IL-10 or TGFβ dominated. Immune infiltration into the injury predominantly comprised myeloid cells, and B cell treatment did not alter overall numbers of infiltrating cells. In the presence of B cells, significantly more infiltrating myeloid cells produced IL-10, TGFβ, and IL-35, and fewer produced TNFα, interferon-γ and IL-6 as compared to controls, up to 2 months post-TBI. B cell treatment significantly increased the proportion of CD206+ infiltrating monocytes/macrophages and reduced the relative proportion of activated microglia starting at 4 days and up to 2 months post-injury. Ablation of peripheral monocytes with clodronate liposomes showed that infiltrating peripheral monocytes/macrophages are required for inducing the regulatory phenotype in exogenous B cells. Reciprocally, B cells specifically reduced the expression of inflammatory cytokines in infiltrating Ly6C+ monocytes/macrophages. These data support the hypothesis that peripheral myeloid cells, particularly infiltrating monocyte/macrophages, are key mediators of the neuroprotective immunomodulatory effects observed after B cell treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam J Dwyer
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Saumya Maheshwari
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Emily Levy
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Mark C Poznansky
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Michael J Whalen
- Neuroscience Center, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Ruxandra F Sîrbulescu
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02129, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
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6
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Implications of microglial heterogeneity in spinal cord injury progression and therapy. Exp Neurol 2023; 359:114239. [PMID: 36216123 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS), where they aid in the maintenance of neuronal function and perform key auxiliary roles in phagocytosis, neural repair, immunological control, and nutrition delivery. Microglia in the undamaged spinal cord is in a stable state and serve as immune monitors. In the event of spinal cord injury (SCI), severe changes in the microenvironment and glial scar formation lead to axonal regeneration failure. Microglia participates in a series of pathophysiological processes and behave both positive and negative consequences during this period. A deep understanding of the characteristics and functions of microglia can better identify therapeutic targets for SCI. Technological innovations such as single-cell RNA sequencing (Sc-RNAseq) have led to new advances in the study of microglia heterogeneity throughout the lifespan. Here,We review the updated studies searching for heterogeneity of microglia from the developmental and pathological state, survey the activity and function of microglia in SCI and explore the recent therapeutic strategies targeting microglia in the CNS injury.
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7
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Fu SP, Chen SY, Pang QM, Zhang M, Wu XC, Wan X, Wan WH, Ao J, Zhang T. Advances in the research of the role of macrophage/microglia polarization-mediated inflammatory response in spinal cord injury. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1014013. [PMID: 36532022 PMCID: PMC9751019 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1014013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
It is often difficult to regain neurological function following spinal cord injury (SCI). Neuroinflammation is thought to be responsible for this failure. Regulating the inflammatory response post-SCI may contribute to the recovery of neurological function. Over the past few decades, studies have found that macrophages/microglia are one of the primary effector cells in the inflammatory response following SCI. Growing evidence has documented that macrophages/microglia are plastic cells that can polarize in response to microenvironmental signals into M1 and M2 macrophages/microglia. M1 produces pro-inflammatory cytokines to induce inflammation and worsen tissue damage, while M2 has anti-inflammatory activities in wound healing and tissue regeneration. Recent studies have indicated that the transition from the M1 to the M2 phenotype of macrophage/microglia supports the regression of inflammation and tissue repair. Here, we will review the role of the inflammatory response and macrophages/microglia in SCI and repair. In addition, we will discuss potential molecular mechanisms that induce macrophage/microglia polarization, with emphasis on neuroprotective therapies that modulate macrophage/microglia polarization, which will provide new insights into therapeutic strategies for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Ping Fu
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Si-Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Qi-Ming Pang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xiang-Chong Wu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Xue Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Wei-Hong Wan
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Jun Ao
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Engineering of Guizhou Province, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,The Clinical Stem Cell Research Institute, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China,*Correspondence: Tao Zhang,
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8
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Shi W, Zhang J, Shang Z, Zhang Y, Xia Y, Fu H, Yu T. Restorative therapy using microglial depletion and repopulation for central nervous system injuries and diseases. Front Immunol 2022; 13:969127. [PMID: 35911768 PMCID: PMC9329909 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.969127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are important resident immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and play an important role in its development, homeostasis, and disease treatments. Activated microglia perform diverse functions in mouse models of CNS neurodegenerative diseases or deficits. In humans, microglia have been linked to various neurodegenerative diseases. Following brain or spinal cord injury, microglia express pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes at different stages of recovery. With the development of pharmacological and genetic tools for microglial depletion, studies have demonstrated that microglial depletion exerts both positive and negative effects in the treatment of CNS diseases. Notably, microglial depletion provides an empty niche that stimulates production of new microglia. Microglial depletion and repopulation can not only treat diseases by eliminating dysfunctional microglia but can also provide an indication of the molecular mechanisms of diseases. Although this approach has shown impressive results, its use is still in its infancy. In this review, we summarize the current pharmacological and genetic tools for microglial depletion and highlight recent advances in microglial repopulation therapy for the treatment and functional recovery of neurological diseases and deficits. Finally, we briefly discuss the therapeutic challenges and prospective uses of microglial repopulation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weipeng Shi
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhen Shang
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yingze Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics of Hebei Province, Department of Trauma Emergency Center, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Orthopaedics Research Institution of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yanzhi Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Collaborative Innovation Center for Marine Biomass Fibers, Materials and Textiles of Shandong Province, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Marine Biobased Materials, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Haitao Fu
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Haitao Fu, ; Tengbo Yu,
| | - Tengbo Yu
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Haitao Fu, ; Tengbo Yu,
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9
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Deng J, Meng F, Zhang K, Gao J, Liu Z, Li M, Liu X, Li J, Wang Y, Zhang L, Tang P. Emerging Roles of Microglia Depletion in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2022; 11:cells11121871. [PMID: 35741000 PMCID: PMC9221038 DOI: 10.3390/cells11121871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, as the resident immune cells and first responder to neurological insults, play an extremely important role in the pathophysiological process of spinal cord injury. On the one hand, microglia respond rapidly and gather around the lesion in the early stage of injury to exert a protective role, but with the continuous stimulation of the injury, the excessive activated microglia secrete a large number of harmful substances, aggravate the injury of spinal cord tissue, and affect functional recovery. The effects of microglia depletion on the repair of spinal cord injury remain unclear, and there is no uniformly accepted paradigm for the removal methods and timing of microglia depletion, but different microglia depletion strategies greatly affect the outcomes after spinal cord injury. Therefore, this review summarizes the physiological and pathological roles of microglia, especially the effects of microglia depletion on spinal cord injury-sustained microglial depletion would aggravate injury and impair functional recovery, while the short-term depletion of microglial population in diseased conditions seems to improve tissue repair and promote functional improvement after spinal cord injury. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of major strategies and timing of microglia depletion to provide potential strategy for the treatment of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhao Deng
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Fanqi Meng
- Department of Spine Surgery, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China;
| | - Kexue Zhang
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Jianpeng Gao
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Zhongyang Liu
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Ming Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Xiao Liu
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Jiantao Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Yu Wang
- Beijing Key Lab of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopaedics, Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma and War Injuries PLA, Institute of Orthopaedics, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Licheng Zhang
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (P.T.)
| | - Peifu Tang
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (P.T.)
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10
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Pang QM, Qian NN, Zou WH, Yang YC, Chen H, Zhang M, Zhang Q, Ao J, Zhang T. PBMSCs transplantation facilitates functional recovery after spinal cord injury by regulating microglia/macrophages plasticity. Transpl Immunol 2022; 72:101592. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trim.2022.101592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Metformin Protects against Spinal Cord Injury and Cell Pyroptosis via AMPK/NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway. Anal Cell Pathol 2022; 2022:3634908. [PMID: 35387358 PMCID: PMC8977347 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3634908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is an extreme neurological impairment with few effective drug treatments. Pyroptosis is a recently found and proven type of programmed cell death that is characterized by a reliance on inflammatory caspases and the release of a large number of proinflammatory chemicals. Pyroptosis differs from other cell death mechanisms such as apoptosis and necrosis in terms of morphological traits, incidence, and regulatory mechanism. Pyroptosis is widely involved in the occurrence and development of SCI. In-depth research on pyroptosis will help researchers better understand its involvement in the onset, progression, and prognosis of SCI, as well as provide new therapeutic prevention and treatment options. Herein, we investigated the role of AMPK-mediated activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the neuroprotection of MET-regulated pyroptosis. We found that MET treatment reduced NLRP3 inflammasome activation by activating phosphorylated AMPK and reduced proinflammatory cytokine (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) release. At the same time, MET improved motor function recovery in rats after SCI by reducing motor neuron loss in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Taken together, our study confirmed that MET inhibits neuronal pyroptosis after SCI via the AMPK/NLRP3 signaling pathway, which is mostly dependent on the AMPK pathway increase, hence decreasing NLRP3 inflammasome activation.
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12
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Jakovcevski I, von Düring M, Lutz D, Vulović M, Hamad M, Reiss G, Förster E, Schachner M. Mice lacking perforin have improved regeneration of the injured femoral nerve. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:1802-1808. [PMID: 35017441 PMCID: PMC8820721 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.332152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The role that the immune system plays after injury of the peripheral nervous system is still not completely understood. Perforin, a natural killer cell- and T-lymphocyte-derived enzyme that mediates cytotoxicity, plays important roles in autoimmune diseases, infections and central nervous system trauma, such as spinal cord injury. To dissect the roles of this single component of the immune response to injury, we tested regeneration after femoral nerve injury in perforin-deficient (Pfp–/–) and wild-type control mice. Single frame motion analysis showed better motor recovery in Pfp–/– mice compared with control mice at 4 and 8 weeks after injury. Retrograde tracing of the motoneuron axons regrown into the motor nerve branch demonstrated more correctly projecting motoneurons in the spinal cord of Pfp–/– mice compared with wild-types. Myelination of regrown axons measured by g-ratio was more extensive in Pfp–/– than in wild-type mice in the motor branch of the femoral nerve. Pfp–/– mice displayed more cholinergic synaptic terminals around cell bodies of spinal motoneurons after injury than the injured wild-types. We histologically analyzed lymphocyte infiltration 10 days after surgery and found that in Pfp–/– mice the number of lymphocytes in the regenerating nerves was lower than in wild-types, suggesting a closed blood-nerve barrier in Pfp–/– mice. We conclude that perforin restricts motor recovery after femoral nerve injury owing to decreased survival of motoneurons and reduced myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Jakovcevski
- Institut für Anatomie und Klinische Morphologie, Universität Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany
| | - Monika von Düring
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - David Lutz
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Maja Vulović
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Mohammad Hamad
- Institut für Anatomie und Klinische Morphologie, Universität Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany
| | - Gebhard Reiss
- Institut für Anatomie und Klinische Morphologie, Universität Witten/Herdecke, Witten, Germany
| | - Eckart Förster
- Department of Neuroanatomy and Molecular Brain Research, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
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Zhou Z, Li D, Fan X, Yuan Y, Wang H, Wang D, Mei X. Gold nanoclusters conjugated berberine reduce inflammation and alleviate neuronal apoptosis by mediating M2 polarization for spinal cord injury repair. Regen Biomater 2021; 9:rbab072. [PMID: 35558096 PMCID: PMC9089162 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbab072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to nerve cell apoptosis and loss of motor function. Herein, excessive activation of the M1 phenotype macrophages/microglia is found to be the main reason for the poor prognosis of SCI, but the selective activation phenotype (M2) macrophages/microglia facilitates the recovery of SCI. Thereafter, we used gold nanoclusters loaded berberine (BRB-AuNCs) to reduce inflammation by inhibiting the activation of M1 phenotype macrophages/microglia, which simultaneously inhibited neuronal apoptosis after SCI. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that BRB-AuNCs reduced M1 protein marker CD86, increased M2 protein marker CD206, reduced inflammation and apoptotic cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, Cleaved Caspase-3 and Bax). These results indicate that BRB-AuNCs have excellent anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects by inducing the polarization of macrophages/microglia from M1 phenotype to M2 phenotype. Thereafter, the motor functions of SCI rats were significantly improved after treatment with BRB-AuNCs. This work not only provides a new way for the treatment of SCI but also broadens BRB utilization strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zipeng Zhou
- Department of The First Clinical College, Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 79, Chongshan East Road, Huanggu District, Shenyang City, Liaoning Province 110847, P.R. China
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Basic Science, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Xiangyi Fan
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Yajiang Yuan
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Hongyu Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Dahao Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Xifan Mei
- Department of Orthopedics, First Affiliated Hospital of Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
- Jinzhou Medical University, No.40, Section 3, Songpo Road, Linghe District Jinzhou City, Liaoning Province 121001, P.R.China
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