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Ferland-Beckham C, Chaby LE, Daskalakis NP, Knox D, Liberzon I, Lim MM, McIntyre C, Perrine SA, Risbrough VB, Sabban EL, Jeromin A, Haas M. Systematic Review and Methodological Considerations for the Use of Single Prolonged Stress and Fear Extinction Retention in Rodents. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:652636. [PMID: 34054443 PMCID: PMC8162789 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.652636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event that can lead to lifelong burden that increases mortality and adverse health outcomes. Yet, no new treatments have reached the market in two decades. Thus, screening potential interventions for PTSD is of high priority. Animal models often serve as a critical translational tool to bring new therapeutics from bench to bedside. However, the lack of concordance of some human clinical trial outcomes with preclinical animal efficacy findings has led to a questioning of the methods of how animal studies are conducted and translational validity established. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to determine methodological variability in studies that applied a prominent animal model of trauma-like stress, single prolonged stress (SPS). The SPS model has been utilized to evaluate a myriad of PTSD-relevant outcomes including extinction retention. Rodents exposed to SPS express an extinction retention deficit, a phenotype identified in humans with PTSD, in which fear memory is aberrantly retained after fear memory extinction. The current systematic review examines methodological variation across all phases of the SPS paradigm, as well as strategies for behavioral coding, data processing, statistical approach, and the depiction of data. Solutions for key challenges and sources of variation within these domains are discussed. In response to methodological variation in SPS studies, an expert panel was convened to generate methodological considerations to guide researchers in the application of SPS and the evaluation of extinction retention as a test for a PTSD-like phenotype. Many of these guidelines are applicable to all rodent paradigms developed to model trauma effects or learned fear processes relevant to PTSD, and not limited to SPS. Efforts toward optimizing preclinical model application are essential for enhancing the reproducibility and translational validity of preclinical findings, and should be conducted for all preclinical psychiatric research models.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lauren E Chaby
- Cohen Veterans Bioscience, New York City, NY, United States
| | - Nikolaos P Daskalakis
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States
| | - Dayan Knox
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Israel Liberzon
- Department of Psychiatry, Texas A&M University, Bryan, TX, United States
| | - Miranda M Lim
- Departments of Neurology, Behavioral Neuroscience, Medicine, Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States.,Sleep Disorders Clinic, VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Christa McIntyre
- Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - Shane A Perrine
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States.,Research Service, John. D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Victoria B Risbrough
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Center for Excellence in Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Esther L Sabban
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, United States
| | | | - Magali Haas
- Cohen Veterans Bioscience, New York City, NY, United States
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2
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Lay BPP, Khoo SYS. Associative processes in addiction relapse models: A review of their Pavlovian and instrumental mechanisms, history, and terminology. NEUROANATOMY AND BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.35430/nab.2021.e18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of relapse to drug-seeking have borrowed heavily from associative learning approaches. In studies of relapse-like behaviour, animals learn to self-administer drugs then receive a period of extinction during which they learn to inhibit the operant response. Several triggers can produce a recovery of responding which form the basis of a variety of models. These include the passage of time (spontaneous recovery), drug availability (rapid reacquisition), extinction of an alternative response (resurgence), context change (renewal), drug priming, stress, and cues (reinstatement). In most cases, the behavioural processes driving extinction and recovery in operant drug self-administration studies are similar to those in the Pavlovian and behavioural literature, such as context effects. However, reinstatement in addiction studies have several differences with Pavlovian reinstatement, which have emerged over several decades, in experimental procedures, associative mechanisms, and terminology. Interestingly, in cue-induced reinstatement, drug-paired cues that are present during acquisition are omitted during lever extinction. The unextinguished drug-paired cue may limit the model’s translational relevance to cue exposure therapy and renders its underlying associative mechanisms ambiguous. We review major behavioural theories that explain recovery phenomena, with a particular focus on cue-induced reinstatement because it is a widely used model in addiction. We argue that cue-induced reinstatement may be explained by a combination of behavioural processes, including reacquisition of conditioned reinforcement and Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer. While there are important differences between addiction studies and the behavioural literature in terminology and procedures, it is clear that understanding associative learning processes is essential for studying relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda Po Pyn Lay
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology/Groupe de Recherche en Neurobiologie Comportementale, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Shaun Yon-Seng Khoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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3
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Yau JOY, McNally GP. Rules for aversive learning and decision-making. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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4
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RaiseAbdullahi P, Vafaei AA, Ghanbari A, Dadkhah M, Rashidy-Pour A. Time-dependent protective effects of morphine against behavioral and morphological deficits in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behav Brain Res 2019; 364:19-28. [PMID: 30753875 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) arises after an individual has experienced a major traumatic event. Recent evidence suggests that acute morphine treatment may serve as a strategy to reduce PTSD development. In the present study, we investigated the time-dependent effects of morphine on behavioral and morphological deficits induced by the single prolonged stress (SPS), an experimental model of PTSD, in adult male rats. The rats were exposed to SPS (restraint for 2 h, forced swimming for 20 min, and ether anesthesia), and kept undistributed for 11 days. Morphine was injected immediately, 6, 12 and 24 h after SPS. Anxiety profile was evaluated using the elevated plus maze11 days after SPS. Then, animals were conditioned in a fear conditioning task and extinction training was performed on days 1, 2, 3, 4 and 11 after fear conditioning which followed by morphological assessments in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). SPS rats showed increased anxiety levels and impaired contextual fear extinction retention. SPS also decreased dendritic length in the infra-limbic (IL) and dendritic spines in the IL and pre-limbic (PL) regions of the mPFC. Conversely, morphine treatment 6, 12 and 24 h but not immediately after SPS significantly improved anxiety-like behaviors, fear extinction, increased dendritic length, and spines in the mPFC. Morphine-induced much stronger response when injected 24 h after the SPS, and this effect was blocked by naloxone. Our findings show that morphine within a restricted time window selectively reversed the SPS-induced deficits in anxiety profile, fear extinction, and dendritic morphology in the mPFC. Finally, these findings suggest that the time point of morphine injection following a traumatic event is an important determinant of the full therapeutic effect of morphine against PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payman RaiseAbdullahi
- Student Research Committee, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Laboratoryof Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Abbas Ali Vafaei
- Laboratoryof Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Ali Ghanbari
- Laboratoryof Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran
| | - Masoomeh Dadkhah
- Research Centers Development and Coordination Office, Deputy of Research& Technology, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences Ardabil, Iran
| | - Ali Rashidy-Pour
- Laboratoryof Learning and Memory, Research Center of Physiology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran.
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5
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Yoshiike T, Honma M, Yamada N, Kim Y, Kuriyama K. Effects of bright light exposure on human fear conditioning, extinction, and associated prefrontal activation. Physiol Behav 2018; 194:268-276. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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6
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Lyons DM, Buckmaster CL, Schatzberg AF. Learning to actively cope with stress in female mice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 96:78-83. [PMID: 29909293 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Repeated exposure to a same-sex resident stranger enhances subsequent indications of active coping that generalize across multiple contexts in intruder male mice. Here we investigate female mice for comparable learning to cope training effects. Stress coping research focused on females is important because stress related mood and anxiety disorders are more prevalent in women than men. Female mice were monitored for coping behavior in open-field, object-exploration, and tail-suspension tests conducted after repeated exposure to a same-sex resident stranger. During repeated exposure sessions of training staged in the resident's home cage, behavioral measures of aggression and risk assessment were collected and plasma measures of the stress hormone corticosterone were obtained from separate samples of mice. Repeated exposure to a same-sex resident stranger subsequently enhanced active coping behavior exemplified by diminished freezing and increased center entries in the open-field, shorter object-exploration latencies, and a tendency toward decreased immobility on tail-suspension tests. Open-field locomotion considered as an index of non-specific activity was not increased by repeated sessions of exposure and did not correlate significantly with any measure of active coping. During repeated sessions of exposure to a same-sex resident stranger, risk assessment behavior and consistent but limited aggression occurred and corticosterone responses increased over repeated sessions. Exposure to a same-sex resident stranger is mildly stressful and promotes learning to actively cope in mice assessed in three different contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Lyons
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States.
| | - Christine L Buckmaster
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Alan F Schatzberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
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7
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Lee J, Russo AS, Parsons RG. Facilitation of fear learning by prior and subsequent fear conditioning. Behav Brain Res 2018; 347:61-68. [PMID: 29524449 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Classical fear conditioning is perhaps the premier model system used to study the neurobiological basis of memory formation. Prior work has resulted in a good understanding of both the molecular mechanisms and neural circuits supporting this form of learning. However, much of what is known about these mechanisms comes from studies in which fear memory is acquired using a single, isolated training session. Given that we cannot divorce the acquisition of new information from the backdrop on which it occurs, studies are needed to determine how the acquisition of fear memory is affected by other learning events. Here, we used rats to describe the time course by which auditory fear conditioning can facilitate learning to a different fear learning event, which alone is insufficient to support long-term fear memory. First, we replicated previous findings showing that although a single trial of light and shock produces little evidence of memory, two identical trials spaced 60 min or 24 h apart support long-term memory. Next, we report that a typical auditory fear conditioning session facilitated memory formation when rats were subsequently exposed to a single trial of light and shock 60 min or 24 h, but not 4 min, later. Finally, we show that learning can be enhanced retroactively if auditory fear conditioning occurs 60 min, but not 24 h, after a single light-shock pairing. These data demonstrate that a weak fear conditioning trial can be enhanced by prior and subsequent fear conditioning depending on the timing between training events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Lee
- Stony Brook University, Department of Psychology, 100 Nicolls Rd., Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Amanda S Russo
- Stony Brook University, Department of Psychology, 100 Nicolls Rd., Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States
| | - Ryan G Parsons
- Stony Brook University, Department of Psychology, 100 Nicolls Rd., Stony Brook, NY, 11794, United States.
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8
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Leer A, Haesen K, Vervliet B. Beyond Extinction: Prolonged Conditioning and Repeated Threat Exposure Abolish Contextual Renewal of Fear-Potentiated Startle Discrimination but Leave Expectancy Ratings Intact. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:117. [PMID: 29681867 PMCID: PMC5897540 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extinction treatments decrease fear via repeated exposures to the conditioned stimulus (CS) and are associated with a return of fear. Alternatively, fear can be reduced via reductions in the perceived intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (US), e.g., through repeated exposures to the US. Promisingly, the few available studies show that repeated US exposures outperform standard extinction. US exposure treatments can decrease fear via two routes: (1) by weakening the CS-US association (extinction-like mechanism), and/or (2) by weakening the subjective US aversiveness (habituation-like mechanism). The current study further investigated the conditions under which US exposure treatment may reduce renewal, by adding a group in which CS-US pairings continued following fear acquisition. During acquisition, participants learned that one of two visual stimuli (CS+/CS-) predicted the occurrence of an aversive electrocutaneous stimulus (US). Next, the background context changed and participants received one of three interventions: repeated CS exposures, (2) repeated US exposures, or (3) continued CS-US pairings. Following repeated CS exposures, test presentations of the CSs in the original conditioning context revealed intact CS+/CS- differentiation in the fear-potentiated startle reflex, while the differentiation was abolished in the other two groups. Differential US expectancy ratings, on the other hand, were intact in all groups. Skin conductance data were inconclusive because standard context renewal following CS exposures did not occur. Unexpectedly, there was no evidence for a habituation-like process having taken place during US exposures or continued CS-US pairings. The results provide further evidence that US exposures outperform the standard extinction treatment and show that effects are similar when US exposures are part of CS-US pairings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arne Leer
- Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Kim Haesen
- Center for Excellence on Generalization, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Vervliet
- Center for Excellence on Generalization, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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9
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Mikics E, Toth M, Biro L, Bruzsik B, Nagy B, Haller J. The role of GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors in short- and long-term fear recall. Physiol Behav 2017; 177:44-48. [PMID: 28400283 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are crucial synaptic elements in long-term memory formation, including the associative learning of fearful events. Although NMDA blockers were consistently shown to inhibit fear memory acquisition and recall, the clinical use of general NMDA blockers is hampered by their side effects. Recent studies revealed significant heterogeneity in the distribution and neurophysiological characteristics of NMDA receptors with different GluN2 (NR2) subunit composition, which may have differential role in fear learning and recall. To investigate the specific role of NMDA receptor subpopulations with different GluN2 subunit compositions in the formation of lasting traumatic memories, we contrasted the effects of general NMDA receptor blockade with GluN2A-, GluN2B-, and GluN2C/D subunit selective antagonists (MK-801, PEAQX, Ro25-6981, PPDA, respectively). To investigate acute and lasting consequences, behavioral responses were investigated 1 and 28days after fear conditioning. We found that MK-801 (0.05 and 0.1mg/kg) decreased fear recall at both time points. GluN2B receptor subunit blockade produced highly similar effects, albeit efficacy was somewhat smaller 28days after fear conditioning. Unlike MK-801, Ro25-6981 (3 and 10mg/kg) did not affect locomotor activity in the open-field. In contrast, GluN2A and GluN2C/D blockers (6 and 20mg/kg PEAQX; 3 and 10mg/kg PPDA, respectively) had no effect on conditioned fear recall at any time point and dose. This sharp contrast between GluN2B- and other subunit-containing NMDA receptor function indicates that GluN2B receptor subunits are intimately involved in fear memory formation, and may provide a novel pharmacological target in post-traumatic stress disorder or other fear-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Mikics
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Mate Toth
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Laszlo Biro
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Biborka Bruzsik
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Boglarka Nagy
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jozsef Haller
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, P.O. Box 67, H-1450 Budapest, Hungary
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10
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Furlong TM, Richardson R, McNally GP. Habituation and extinction of fear recruit overlapping forebrain structures. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 128:7-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2015.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Sengupta A, Winters B, Bagley EE, McNally GP. Disrupted Prediction Error Links Excessive Amygdala Activation to Excessive Fear. J Neurosci 2016; 36:385-95. [PMID: 26758831 PMCID: PMC6602025 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3670-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Basolateral amygdala (BLA) is critical for fear learning, and its heightened activation is widely thought to underpin a variety of anxiety disorders. Here we used chemogenetic techniques in rats to study the consequences of heightened BLA activation for fear learning and memory, and to specifically identify a mechanism linking increased activity of BLA glutamatergic neurons to aberrant fear. We expressed the excitatory hM3Dq DREADD in rat BLA glutamatergic neurons and showed that CNO acted selectively to increase their activity, depolarizing these neurons and increasing their firing rates. This chemogenetic excitation of BLA glutamatergic neurons had no effect on the acquisition of simple fear learning, regardless of whether this learning led to a weak or strong fear memory. However, in an associative blocking task, chemogenetic excitation of BLA glutamatergic neurons yielded significant learning to a blocked conditioned stimulus, which otherwise should not have been learned about. Moreover, in an overexpectation task, chemogenetic manipulation of BLA glutamatergic neurons prevented use of negative prediction error to reduce fear learning, leading to significant impairments in fear inhibition. These effects were not attributable to the chemogenetic manipulation enhancing arousal, increasing asymptotic levels of fear learning or fear memory consolidation. Instead, chemogenetic excitation of BLA glutamatergic neurons disrupted use of prediction error to regulate fear learning. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Several neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by heightened activation of the amygdala. This heightened activation has been hypothesized to underlie increased emotional reactivity, fear over generalization, and deficits in fear inhibition. Yet the mechanisms linking heightened amygdala activation to heightened emotional learning are elusive. Here we combined chemogenetic excitation of rat basolateral amygdala glutamatergic neurons with a variety of behavioral approaches to show that, although simple fear learning is unaffected, the use of prediction error to regulate this learning is profoundly disrupted, leading to formation of inappropriate fear associations and impaired fear inhibition.
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MESH Headings
- Action Potentials/drug effects
- Action Potentials/physiology
- Amygdala/cytology
- Amygdala/drug effects
- Amygdala/physiology
- Animals
- Clozapine/analogs & derivatives
- Clozapine/pharmacology
- Conditioning, Operant/drug effects
- Conditioning, Operant/physiology
- Conditioning, Psychological/drug effects
- Conditioning, Psychological/physiology
- Dependovirus/genetics
- Electroshock/adverse effects
- Extinction, Psychological/drug effects
- Extinction, Psychological/physiology
- Fear/drug effects
- Glutamic Acid/metabolism
- Humans
- Male
- Membrane Potentials/drug effects
- Neurons/drug effects
- Neurons/physiology
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptor, Muscarinic M3/genetics
- Receptors, Drug/genetics
- Receptors, Drug/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Auntora Sengupta
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia, and
| | - Bryony Winters
- Discipline of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Elena E Bagley
- Discipline of Pharmacology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Gavan P McNally
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia, and
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12
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Groeber Travis CM, Altman DE, Genovese RF. Ketamine administration diminishes operant responding but does not impair conditioned fear. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 139:84-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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13
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Haesen K, Vervliet B. Beyond extinction: Habituation eliminates conditioned skin conductance across contexts. Int J Psychophysiol 2015; 98:529-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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14
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He J, Sun HQ, Li SX, Zhang WH, Shi J, Ai SZ, Li Y, Li XJ, Tang XD, Lu L. Effect of conditioned stimulus exposure during slow wave sleep on fear memory extinction in humans. Sleep 2015; 38:423-31. [PMID: 25348121 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.4502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Repeated exposure to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) in the absence of a noxious unconditioned stimulus (US) elicits fear memory extinction. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of mild tone exposure (CS) during slow wave sleep (SWS) on fear memory extinction in humans. DESIGN The healthy volunteers underwent an auditory fear conditioning paradigm on the experimental night, during which tones served as the CS, and a mild shock served as the US. They were then randomly assigned to four groups. Three groups were exposed to the CS for 3 or 10 min or an irrelevant tone (control stimulus, CtrS) for 10 min during SWS. The fourth group served as controls and was not subjected to any interventions. All of the subjects completed a memory test 4 h after SWS-rich stage to evaluate the effect on fear extinction. Moreover, we conducted similar experiments using an independent group of subjects during the daytime to test whether the memory extinction effect was specific to the sleep condition. PARTICIPANTS Ninety-six healthy volunteers (44 males) aged 18-28 y. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS Participants exhibited undisturbed sleep during 2 consecutive nights, as assessed by sleep variables (all P > 0.05) from polysomnographic recordings and power spectral analysis. Participants who were re-exposed to the 10 min CS either during SWS and wakefulness exhibited attenuated fear responses (wake-10 min CS, P < 0.05; SWS-10 min CS, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Conditioned stimulus re-exposure during SWS promoted fear memory extinction without altering sleep profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia He
- Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China.,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Hong-Qiang Sun
- Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Su-Xia Li
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Hua Zhang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Shi
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Si-Zhi Ai
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yun Li
- Sleep Medicine Center, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiao-Jun Li
- Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang-Dong Tang
- Sleep Medicine Center, Translational Neuroscience Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Lin Lu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China.,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences and PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China
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15
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Singewald N, Schmuckermair C, Whittle N, Holmes A, Ressler KJ. Pharmacology of cognitive enhancers for exposure-based therapy of fear, anxiety and trauma-related disorders. Pharmacol Ther 2014; 149:150-90. [PMID: 25550231 PMCID: PMC4380664 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Pathological fear and anxiety are highly debilitating and, despite considerable advances in psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy they remain insufficiently treated in many patients with PTSD, phobias, panic and other anxiety disorders. Increasing preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that pharmacological treatments including cognitive enhancers, when given as adjuncts to psychotherapeutic approaches [cognitive behavioral therapy including extinction-based exposure therapy] enhance treatment efficacy, while using anxiolytics such as benzodiazepines as adjuncts can undermine long-term treatment success. The purpose of this review is to outline the literature showing how pharmacological interventions targeting neurotransmitter systems including serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, histamine, glutamate, GABA, cannabinoids, neuropeptides (oxytocin, neuropeptides Y and S, opioids) and other targets (neurotrophins BDNF and FGF2, glucocorticoids, L-type-calcium channels, epigenetic modifications) as well as their downstream signaling pathways, can augment fear extinction and strengthen extinction memory persistently in preclinical models. Particularly promising approaches are discussed in regard to their effects on specific aspects of fear extinction namely, acquisition, consolidation and retrieval, including long-term protection from return of fear (relapse) phenomena like spontaneous recovery, reinstatement and renewal of fear. We also highlight the promising translational value of the preclinial research and the clinical potential of targeting certain neurochemical systems with, for example d-cycloserine, yohimbine, cortisol, and L-DOPA. The current body of research reveals important new insights into the neurobiology and neurochemistry of fear extinction and holds significant promise for pharmacologically-augmented psychotherapy as an improved approach to treat trauma and anxiety-related disorders in a more efficient and persistent way promoting enhanced symptom remission and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Singewald
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy and CMBI, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - C Schmuckermair
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy and CMBI, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - N Whittle
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy and CMBI, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - A Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - K J Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Liu J, Zhao L, Xue Y, Shi J, Suo L, Luo Y, Chai B, Yang C, Fang Q, Zhang Y, Bao Y, Pickens CL, Lu L. An unconditioned stimulus retrieval extinction procedure to prevent the return of fear memory. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 76:895-901. [PMID: 24813334 PMCID: PMC4480632 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conditioned fear memories can be updated by extinction during reconsolidation, and this effect is specific to the reactivated conditioned stimulus (CS). However, a traumatic event can be associated with several cues, and each cue can potentially trigger recollection of the event. We introduced a technique to target all diverse cues associated with an aversive event that causes fear. METHODS In human experiments, 161 subjects underwent modified fear conditioning, in which they were exposed to an unconditioned stimulus (US) or unreinforced CS to reactivate the memory and then underwent extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reinstatement. In animal experiments, 343 rats underwent contextual fear conditioning under a similar protocol as that used in the human experiments. We also explored the molecular alterations after US reactivation in rats. RESULTS Presentation of a lower intensity US before extinction disrupted the associations between the different CS and reactivated US in both humans and rats. This effect persisted for at least 6 months in humans and was selective to the reactivated US. This procedure was also effective for remote memories in both humans and rats. Compared with the CS, the US induced stronger endocytosis of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid glutamate receptors 1 and 2 and stronger activation of protein kinase A, p70S6 kinase, and cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein in the dorsal hippocampus in rats. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that a modified US retrieval extinction strategy may have a potential impact on therapeutic approaches to prevent the return of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianfeng Liu
- Institute of Mental Health/Peking University Sixth Hospital and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Liyan Zhao
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yanxue Xue
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jie Shi
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Lin Suo
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yixiao Luo
- Institute of Mental Health/Peking University Sixth Hospital and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Baisheng Chai
- School of Pharmacy and Affiliated Hospital of Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang 550004, China
| | - Chang Yang
- School of Pharmacy and Affiliated Hospital of Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang 550004, China
| | - Qin Fang
- School of Pharmacy and Affiliated Hospital of Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang 550004, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yanping Bao
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Charles L. Pickens
- Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Lin Lu
- Institute of Mental Health and Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Peking University, Beijing, China; National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences and Peking University-International Data Group-McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China.
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Chen X, Liao Z, Wong YT, Guo Y, He J. Time course of the dependence of associative memory retrieval on the entorhinal cortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2014; 116:155-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Bai Y, Zhou L, Wu X, Dong Z. D-serine enhances fear extinction by increasing GluA2-containing AMPA receptor endocytosis. Behav Brain Res 2014; 270:223-7. [PMID: 24861709 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 05/04/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) glycine site has been shown to enhance memory extinction in physiological and pathological conditions. In the current study, we examined the effects of D-serine, an endogenous NMDAR glycine site agonist, on fear extinction and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) endocytosis in the hippocampus during the process of fear extinction. In inhibitory avoidance task, systemic administration of D-serine (800 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly accelerated memory extinction. The Western blot analyses showed that the acceleration of memory extinction was accompanied by an increase in postsynaptic AMPAR endocytosis in the hippocampus. Furthermore, the application of a synthetic peptide Tat-GluA23Y (3.0 μmol/kg, i.p.) that interferes with the endocytosis of AMPARs succeeded in preventing the enhancement of fear extinction and AMPAR endocytosis induced by D-serine. These results suggest that d-serine might enhance fear extinction through increasing GluA2-containing AMPA receptor endocytosis, and that d-serine may be a potential therapeutic agent against learning and memory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanrui Bai
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China
| | - Limin Zhou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China
| | - Xiaoyan Wu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China
| | - Zhifang Dong
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400014, PR China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram Vervliet
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; ,
| | - Michelle G. Craske
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1563;
| | - Dirk Hermans
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; ,
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De Massari D, Matuz T, Furdea A, Ruf CA, Halder S, Birbaumer N. Brain–computer interface and semantic classical conditioning of communication in paralysis. Biol Psychol 2013; 92:267-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Baker KD, McNally GP, Richardson R. D-cycloserine does not facilitate fear extinction by reducing conditioned stimulus processing or promoting conditioned inhibition to contextual cues. Learn Mem 2012; 19:461-9. [PMID: 22984284 DOI: 10.1101/lm.026674.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The NMDA receptor partial agonist d-cycloserine (DCS) enhances the extinction of learned fear in rats and exposure therapy in humans with anxiety disorders. Despite these benefits, little is known about the mechanisms by which DCS promotes the loss of fear. The present study examined whether DCS augments extinction retention (1) through reductions in conditioned stimulus (CS) processing or (2) by promoting the development of conditioned inhibition to contextual cues. Rats administered DCS prior to extinction showed enhanced long-term extinction retention (Experiments 3 and 4). The same nonreinforced CS procedure used in extinction also reduced freezing at test when presented as pre-exposure before conditioning, demonstrating latent inhibition (Experiment 1). DCS administered shortly prior to pre-exposure had no effect on latent inhibition using parameters which produced weak (Experiment 2) or strong (Experiment 3) expression of latent inhibition. Therefore, DCS facilitated learning involving CS-alone exposures, but only when these exposures occurred after (extinction) and not before (latent inhibition) conditioning. We also used a retardation test procedure to examine whether the extinction context gained inhibitory properties for rats given DCS prior to extinction. With three different footshock intensities, there was no evidence that DCS promoted accrual of associative inhibition to the extinction context (Experiment 4). The present findings demonstrate that DCS does not facilitate extinction by reducing CS processing or causing the extinction context to become a conditioned inhibitor. Investigations into the mechanisms underlying the augmentation of extinction by DCS are valuable for understanding how fear can be inhibited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn D Baker
- School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia.
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23
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Pace-Schott EF, Verga PW, Bennett TS, Spencer RMC. Sleep promotes consolidation and generalization of extinction learning in simulated exposure therapy for spider fear. J Psychiatr Res 2012; 46:1036-44. [PMID: 22578824 PMCID: PMC3392441 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2012] [Revised: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Simulated exposure therapy for spider phobia served as a clinically naturalistic model to study effects of sleep on extinction. Spider-fearing, young adult women (N = 66), instrumented for skin conductance response (SCR), heart rate acceleration (HRA) and corrugator electromyography (EMG), viewed 14 identical 1-min videos of a behaving spider before a 12-hr delay containing a normal night's Sleep (N = 20) or continuous daytime Wake (N = 23), or a 2-hr delay of continuous wake in the Morning (N = 11) or Evening (N = 12). Following the delay, all groups viewed this same video 6 times followed by six 1-min videos of a novel spider. After each video, participants rated disgust, fearfulness and unpleasantness. In all 4 groups, all measures except corrugator EMG diminished across Session 1 (extinction learning) and, excepting SCR to a sudden noise, increased from the old to novel spider in Session 2. In Wake only, summed subjective ratings and SCR to the old spider significantly increased across the delay (extinction loss) and were greater for the novel vs. the old spider when it was equally novel at the beginning of Session 1 (sensitization). In Sleep only, SCR to a sudden noise decreased across the inter-session delay (extinction augmentation) and, along with HRA, was lower to the novel spider than initially to the old spider in Session 1 (extinction generalization). None of the above differentiated Morning and Evening groups suggesting that intervening sleep, rather than time-of-testing, produced differences between Sleep and Wake. Thus, sleep following exposure therapy may promote retention and generalization of extinction learning.
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Orsini CA, Maren S. Neural and cellular mechanisms of fear and extinction memory formation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1773-802. [PMID: 22230704 PMCID: PMC3345303 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/23/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Over the course of natural history, countless animal species have evolved adaptive behavioral systems to cope with dangerous situations and promote survival. Emotional memories are central to these defense systems because they are rapidly acquired and prepare organisms for future threat. Unfortunately, the persistence and intrusion of memories of fearful experiences are quite common and can lead to pathogenic conditions, such as anxiety and phobias. Over the course of the last 30 years, neuroscientists and psychologists alike have attempted to understand the mechanisms by which the brain encodes and maintains these aversive memories. Of equal interest, though, is the neurobiology of extinction memory formation as this may shape current therapeutic techniques. Here we review the extant literature on the neurobiology of fear and extinction memory formation, with a strong focus on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin A. Orsini
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA
| | - Stephen Maren
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA
- Department of Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1043, USA
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Sokol N, Lovibond PF. Cross-US reinstatement of human conditioned fear: Return of old fears or emergence of new ones? Behav Res Ther 2012; 50:313-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 02/07/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Storsve AB, McNally GP, Richardson R. Renewal and reinstatement of the conditioned but not the unconditioned response following habituation of the unconditioned stimulus. Behav Processes 2012; 90:58-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Graham BM, Langton JM, Richardson R. Pharmacological enhancement of fear reduction: preclinical models. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 164:1230-47. [PMID: 21175588 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01175.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders have a high prevalence, and despite the substantial advances in the psychological treatment of anxiety, relapse is still a common problem. One approach to improving existing psychological treatments for anxiety has been to develop pharmacological agents that can be used to enhance the processes underlying exposure therapy, which is the most commonly used and empirically validated psychological treatment for anxiety during which individuals are taught to appropriately inhibit fear. Animal models of exposure therapy, particularly fear extinction, have proved to be a very useful way of examining the neural and molecular correlates of fear inhibition, which has in turn led to the identification of numerous drugs that enhance these processes in rats. Several of these drugs have subsequently been tested as novel pharmacological adjuncts to exposure therapy in humans with a range of anxiety disorders. The purpose of this review is to outline the key animal models of exposure therapy and to describe how these have been used to develop potential pharmacological adjuncts for anxiety disorders. Drugs that are currently in clinical use, as well as those currently in the preclinical stages of investigation, are described.
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Harvey BH, Shahid M. Metabotropic and ionotropic glutamate receptors as neurobiological targets in anxiety and stress-related disorders: Focus on pharmacology and preclinical translational models. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 100:775-800. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Revised: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Learning-induced changes in mPFC-BLA connections after fear conditioning, extinction, and reinstatement of fear. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011; 36:2276-85. [PMID: 21750582 PMCID: PMC3176564 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The neural circuit linking the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the basolateral amygdala (BLA) has crucial roles in both the acquisition and the extinction of fear. However, the mechanism by which this circuit encodes fear and extinction remains unknown. In this study, we monitored changes in the magnitude of evoked field potentials (EFPs) in the mPFC-BLA and BLA-mPFC pathways following auditory fear conditioning and extinction, in freely moving rats. We report that extinction of fear is mediated by depression of the EFPs in the mPFC-BLA and by potentiation in the reciprocal pathway of BLA-mPFC. Interestingly, reinstatement of fear was associated with recovery of freezing and with reversal of the changes in EFPs that were observed following extinction in both pathways. The findings indicate that the mPFC-BLA circuit expresses differential changes following fear and extinction and point to dynamic and plastic changes underlying fear, extinction, and reinstatement. Manipulations targeting these different types of plasticity could constitute a therapeutic tool for the treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Costanzi M, Cannas S, Saraulli D, Rossi-Arnaud C, Cestari V. Extinction after retrieval: Effects on the associative and nonassociative components of remote contextual fear memory. Learn Mem 2011; 18:508-18. [DOI: 10.1101/lm.2175811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Steckler T, Risbrough V. Pharmacological treatment of PTSD - established and new approaches. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:617-27. [PMID: 21736888 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Revised: 06/02/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A large proportion of humans will experience a traumatic event at least once in their lifetime, with up to 10% then going on to developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this review we will discuss established pharmacological interventions for PTSD as well as highlight novel therapeutic strategies undergoing extensive pre-clinical research as well as ongoing clinical research. Such strategies include prophylactic treatments and use of pharmacotherapy as adjunctive treatment with established trauma-focused psychological therapies. These potential treatment approaches include modulation of stress effects on memory consolidation after trauma (e.g., glucocorticoid, corticotropin-releasing factor and norepinephrine signalling modulators), as well as putative cognitive enhancers that target mechanisms of conditioned fear extinction and reconsolidation (e.g., glucocorticoid receptor modulators and modulators of glutamate signalling such as positive allosteric modulators of glutamate receptors, glycine transporter inhibitors, or glycine agonists). We will discuss evidence for and against these potential novel treatment strategies and their limitations. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder'.
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Abstract
Some psychiatric illnesses involve a learned component. For example, in posttraumatic stress disorder, memories triggered by trauma-associated cues trigger fear and anxiety, and in addiction, drug-associated cues elicit drug craving and withdrawal. Clinical interventions to reduce the impact of conditioned cues in eliciting these maladaptive conditioned responses are likely to be beneficial. Extinction is a method of lessening conditioned responses and involves repeated exposures to a cue in the absence of the event it once predicted. We believe that an improved understanding of the behavioral and neurobiological mechanisms of extinction will allow extinction-like procedures in the clinic to become more effective. Research on the role of glutamate-the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain-in extinction has led to the development of pharmacotherapeutics to enhance the efficacy of extinction-based protocols in clinical populations. In this review, we describe what has been learned about glutamate actions at its three major receptor types (N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, and metabotropic glutamate receptors) in the extinction of conditioned fear, drug craving, and withdrawal. We then discuss how these findings have been applied in clinical research.
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Napping promotes inter-session habituation to emotional stimuli. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 95:24-36. [PMID: 20969968 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2010.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 10/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The effects of a daytime nap on inter-session habituation to aversive visual stimuli were investigated. Healthy young adult volunteers viewed repeated presentations of highly negative and emotionally neutral (but equally arousing) International Affective Picture System (IAPS) photographs during two afternoon sessions separated by 2.5h. Half of the photographs were shown at both sessions (Repeated Sets) and half differed between sessions (Novel Sets). For each stimulus presentation, evoked skin conductance response (SCR), heart-rate deceleration (HRD) and corrugator supercilii EMG response (EMG), were computed and range corrected using respective maximum session-1 responses. Following each presentation, subjects rated each photograph on dimensions of pleasantness and arousability. During the inter-session interval, Nap subjects had a 120-min polysomnographically monitored sleep opportunity, whereas Wake subjects watched a non-stimulating video. Nap and Wake subjects did not differ in their subjective ratings of photographs. However, for Repeated-Set photographs, Nap subjects demonstrated greater inter-session habituation in SCR and EMG but a trend toward lesser inter-session habituation in HRD. These group differences were absent for Novel-Set photographs. Group differences across all measures were greater for negative stimuli. Occurrence of SWS during the nap was associated with greater inter-session habituation of EMG whereas occurrence of REM was associated with lesser inter-session habituation of SCR to negative stimuli. Sleep may therefore promote emotional adjustment at the level of somatic responses. Physiological but not subjective inter-session habituation to aversive images was enhanced by a daytime nap.
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Chan WYM, Leung HT, Westbrook RF, McNally GP. Effects of recent exposure to a conditioned stimulus on extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Learn Mem 2010; 17:512-21. [PMID: 20884753 DOI: 10.1101/lm.1912510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In six experiments we studied the effects of a single re-exposure to a conditioned stimulus (CS; "retrieval trial") prior to extinction training (extinction-reconsolidation boundary) on the development of and recovery from fear extinction. A single retrieval trial prior to extinction training significantly augmented the renewal and reinstatement of extinguished responding. Augmentation of recovery was not observed if the retrieval and extinction training occurred in different contexts. These results contrast with those reported in earlier papers by Monfils and coworkers in rats and by Schiller and coworkers in humans. We suggest that these contrasting results could depend on the contrasting influences of either: (1) occasion-setting contextual associations vs. direct context-CS associations formed as a consequence of the retrieval trial or (2) discrimination vs. generalization between the circumstances of conditioning and extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Yee Macy Chan
- School of Psychology, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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