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Kushwaha A, Thakur MK. Suv39h1 Silencing Recovers Memory Decline in Scopolamine-Induced Amnesic Mouse Model. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:487-497. [PMID: 37626270 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03570-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Histone post-translational modifications play an important role in the regulation of long-term memory and modulation of expression of neuronal immediate early genes (IEGs). The lysine methyltransferase KMT1A/ Suv39h1 (a mammalian ortholog of the Drosophila melanogaster SU (VAR) 3-9) aids in the methylation of histone H3 at lysine 9. We previously reported that age-related memory decline is associated with an increase in Suv39h1 expression in the hippocampus of male mice. The scopolamine-induced amnesic mouse model is a well-known animal model of memory impairment. In the current study, we have made an attempt to find a link between the changes in the H3K9 trimethylation pattern and memory decline during scopolamine-induced amnesia. It was followed by checking the effect of siRNA-mediated silencing of hippocampal Suv39h1 on memory and expression of neuronal IEGs. Scopolamine treatment significantly increased global levels of H3K9me3 and Suv39h1 in the amnesic hippocampus. Suv39h1 silencing in amnesic mice reduced H3K9me3 levels at the neuronal IEGs (Arc and BDNF) promoter, increased the expression of Arc and BDNF in the hippocampus, and improved recognition memory. Thus, these findings suggest that the silencing of Suv39h1 alone or in combination with other epigenetic drugs might be effective for treating memory decline during amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akanksha Kushwaha
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India
- K N Govt. P G College, Gyanpur, Sant Ravidas Nagar, 221304, India
| | - Mahendra Kumar Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India.
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Mishra E, Thakur MK. Mdivi-1 Rescues Memory Decline in Scopolamine-Induced Amnesic Male Mice by Ameliorating Mitochondrial Dynamics and Hippocampal Plasticity. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:5426-5449. [PMID: 37314656 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03397-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Memory loss, often known as amnesia, is common in the elderly population and refers to forgetting facts and experiences. It is associated with increased mitochondrial fragmentation, though the contribution of mitochondrial dynamics in amnesia is poorly understood. Therefore, the present study is aimed at elucidating the role of Mdivi-1 in mitochondrial dynamics, hippocampal plasticity, and memory during scopolamine (SC)-induced amnesia. The findings imply that Mdivi-1 significantly increased the expression of Arc and BDNF proteins in the hippocampus of SC-induced amnesic mice, validating improved recognition and spatial memory. Moreover, an improved mitochondrial ultrastructure was attributed to a decline in the percentage of fragmented and spherical-shaped mitochondria after Mdivi-1 treatment in SC-induced mice. The significant downregulation of p-Drp1 (S616) protein and upregulation of Mfn2, LC3BI, and LC3BII proteins in Mdivi-1-treated SC-induced mice indicated a decline in fragmented mitochondrial number and healthy mitochondrial dynamics. Mdivi-1 treatment alleviated ROS production and Caspase-3 activity and elevated mitochondrial membrane potential, Vdac1 expression, ATP production, and myelination, resulting in reduced neurodegeneration in SC mice. Furthermore, the decline of pro-apoptotic protein cytochrome-c and increase of anti-apoptotic proteins Procaspase-9 and Bcl-2 in Mdivi-1-treated SC-induced mice suggested improved neuronal health. Mdivi-1 also increased the dendritic arborization and spine density, which was further corroborated by increased expression of synaptophysin and PSD95. In conclusion, the current study suggests that Mdivi-1 treatment improves mitochondrial ultrastructure and function through the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics. These changes further improve neuronal cell density, myelination, dendritic arborization, and spine density, decrease neurodegeneration, and improve recognition and spatial memory. Schematic presentation depicts that Mdivi-1 rescues memory decline in scopolamine-induced amnesic male mice by ameliorating mitochondrial dynamics and hippocampal plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ela Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India
| | - Mahendra Kumar Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India.
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Sharma R, Bhattu M, Tripathi A, Verma M, Acevedo R, Kumar P, Rajput VD, Singh J. Potential medicinal plants to combat viral infections: A way forward to environmental biotechnology. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 227:115725. [PMID: 37001848 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The viral diseases encouraged scientific community to evaluate the natural antiviral bioactive components rather than protease inhibitors, harmful organic molecules or nucleic acid analogues. For this purpose, medicinal plants have been gaining tremendous importance in the field of attenuating the various kinds of infectious and non-infectious diseases. Most of the commonly used medicines contains the bioactive components/phytoconstituents that are generally extracted from medicinal plants. Moreover, the medicinal plants offer many advantages for the recovery applications of infectious disease especially in viral infections including HIV-1, HIV-2, Enterovirus, Japanese Encephalitis Virus, Hepatitis B virus, Herpes Virus, Respiratory syncytial virus, Chandipura virus and Influenza A/H1N1. Considering the lack of acceptable drug candidates and the growing antimicrobial resistance to existing drug molecules for many emerging viral diseases, medicinal plants may offer best platform to develop sustainable/efficient/economic alternatives against viral infections. In this regard, for exploring and analyzing large volume of scientific data, bibliometric analysis was done using VOS Viewer shedding light on the emerging areas in the field of medicinal plants and their antiviral activity. This review covers most of the plant species that have some novel bioactive compound like gnidicin, gniditrin, rutin, apigenin, quercetin, kaempferol, curcumin, tannin and oleuropin which showed high efficacy to inhibit the several disease causing virus and their mechanism of action in HIV, Covid-19, HBV and RSV were discussed. Moreover, it also delves the in-depth mechanism of medicinal with challenges and future prospective. Therefore, this work delves the key role of environment in the biological field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhydum Sharma
- University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, 140413, Punjab, India
| | - Monika Bhattu
- Department of Chemistry, University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India
| | - Ashutosh Tripathi
- University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, 140413, Punjab, India
| | - Meenakshi Verma
- Department of Chemistry, University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India.
| | - Roberto Acevedo
- San Sebastián University, Campus Bellavista 7, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pradeep Kumar
- Department of Botany, MMV, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Vishnu D Rajput
- Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia
| | - Jagpreet Singh
- Department of Chemistry, University Centre for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, 140413, India.
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Chakrovorty A, Bhattacharjee B, Saxena A, Samadder A, Nandi S. Current Naturopathy to Combat Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:808-841. [PMID: 36173068 PMCID: PMC10227918 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x20666220927121022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration is the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, which may ultimately involve cell death. The most common neurodegenerative disorder in the brain happens with Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia. It ultimately leads to neuronal death, thereby impairing the normal functionality of the central or peripheral nervous system. The onset and prevalence of AD involve heterogeneous etiology, either in terms of genetic predisposition, neurometabolomic malfunctioning, or lifestyle. The worldwide relevancies are estimated to be over 45 million people. The rapid increase in AD has led to a concomitant increase in the research work directed towards discovering a lucrative cure for AD. The neuropathology of AD comprises the deficiency in the availability of neurotransmitters and important neurotrophic factors in the brain, extracellular betaamyloid plaque depositions, and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Current pharmaceutical interventions utilizing synthetic drugs have manifested resistance and toxicity problems. This has led to the quest for new pharmacotherapeutic candidates naturally prevalent in phytochemicals. This review aims to provide an elaborative description of promising Phyto component entities having activities against various potential AD targets. Therefore, naturopathy may combine with synthetic chemotherapeutics to longer the survival of the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnob Chakrovorty
- Department of Zoology, Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Lab., University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, India
| | - Banani Bhattacharjee
- Department of Zoology, Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Lab., University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, India
| | - Aaruni Saxena
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Asmita Samadder
- Department of Zoology, Cytogenetics and Molecular Biology Lab., University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, India
| | - Sisir Nandi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Global Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Affiliated to Uttarakhand Technical University, Kashipur, 244713, India
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Hippocampal Arc Induces Decay of Object Recognition Memory in Male Mice. Neuroscience 2020; 431:193-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Shandilya MCV, Gautam A. The temporal effect of hippocampal Arc in the working memory paradigm during novelty exploration. Brain Res Bull 2020; 158:51-58. [PMID: 32114002 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Arc (activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein) is one of the neuronal Immediate Early Genes (IEG), which is involved in the consolidation of memory and is an essential factor in the induction of Long-term Potentiation (LTP), Long-term Depression (LTD) and homeostatic synaptic plasticity. It has also been implicated in the increased familiarization of novel environments during reference memory paradigms. However, the Arc associated temporal effects in a working memory paradigm during novelty exploration are not well studied. Therefore, in the present study, we used spontaneous alternation behavior (SAB) test along with the expression analysis of Arc to study its temporal effects on the working memory paradigms. Using a modified SAB test, we found that the increase in the duration of exposure to a novel environment in the short time-scale (<min) increases the alternations showing that short-term habituation increases the alternation rate. Additionally, during repeated exposure to a novel environment, the alternation rates decrease after shorter inter-session interval. Parallelly, we observed the upregulation of Arc mRNA and protein level 30 min after the SAB test in the cortex and hippocampus of mice, which returns to near-basal level after two hours. The novel experience, associated with the enhanced expression of Arc, helps in the decrease of alternations in subsequent sessions. This change in alternations was absent if the environment was familiar. Further, the role of Arc during these SAB test was confirmed by the inhibition of hippocampal Arc protein through the stereotaxic infusion of Arc antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. We observed that the Arc is involved in the temporal decrease of spontaneous alternations during a series of exposures to a novel environment. Finally, the significance of these results has been discussed in the light of Wagner's Sometimes Opponent Processes model, where we suggest that Arc reduces the ability for short-term habituation during repeated exposures in the working memory paradigm, and the loss of this ability is more prominent when subjected to a novel environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Vishnu Shandilya
- Molecular Neurobiology Lab, Centre for Neural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 500046, India
| | - Akash Gautam
- Molecular Neurobiology Lab, Centre for Neural and Cognitive Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, 500046, India.
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Konar A, Gupta R, Shukla RK, Maloney B, Khanna VK, Wadhwa R, Lahiri DK, Thakur MK. M1 muscarinic receptor is a key target of neuroprotection, neuroregeneration and memory recovery by i-Extract from Withania somnifera. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13990. [PMID: 31570736 PMCID: PMC6769020 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48238-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory loss is one of the most tragic symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Our laboratory has recently demonstrated that 'i-Extract' of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) restores memory loss in scopolamine (SC)-induced mice. The prime target of i-Extract is obscure. We hypothesize that i-Extract may primarily target muscarinic subtype acetylcholine receptors that regulate memory processes. The present study elucidates key target(s) of i-Extract via cellular, biochemical, and molecular techniques in a relevant amnesia mouse model and primary hippocampal neuronal cultures. Wild type Swiss albino mice were fed i-Extract, and hippocampal cells from naïve mice were treated with i-Extract, followed by muscarinic antagonist (dicyclomine) and agonist (pilocarpine) treatments. We measured dendritic formation and growth by immunocytochemistry, kallikrein 8 (KLK8) mRNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and levels of KLK8 and microtubule-associated protein 2, c isoform (MAP2c) proteins by western blotting. We performed muscarinic receptor radioligand binding. i-Extract stimulated an increase in dendrite growth markers, KLK8 and MAP2. Scopolamine-mediated reduction was significantly reversed by i-Extract in mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Our study identified muscarinic receptor as a key target of i-Extract, providing mechanistic evidence for its clinical application in neurodegenerative cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Konar
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics & Integrative Biology, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - Richa Gupta
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Devision of ECD, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, 110029, India
| | - Rajendra K Shukla
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
- Department of Biochemistry, Autonomous State Medical College, Bahraich, Utter Pradesh, 271801, India
| | - Bryan Maloney
- Departments of Psychiatry, Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 West 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA
| | - Vinay K Khanna
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology and Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), Biomedical Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Central 4, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305 8562, Japan.
| | - Debomoy K Lahiri
- Departments of Psychiatry, Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 West 15th Street, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA.
- Departments of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana Alzheimer Disesae Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN-46202, USA.
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
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Gupta M, Kaur G. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal ameliorates neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments associated with systemic inflammation. BMC COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2019; 19:217. [PMID: 31416451 PMCID: PMC6694620 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-019-2635-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Systemic inflammation driven neuroinflammation is an event which correlates with pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, targeting peripheral and central inflammation simultaneously could be a promising approach for the management of these diseases. Nowadays, herbal medicines are emerging as potent therapeutics against various brain pathologies. Therefore, in this contemporary study, the neuroprotective activity of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) was elucidated against the inflammation associated neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments induced by systemic LPS administration using in vivo rat model system. METHODS To achieve this aim, young adult wistar strain male albino rats were randomized into four groups: (i) Control, (ii) LPS alone, (iii) LPS + ASH-WEX, (iv) ASH-WEX alone. Post regimen, the animals were subjected to Rotarod, Narrow Beam Walking and Novel Object Recognition test to analyze their neuromuscular coordination, working memory and learning functions. The rats were then sacrificed to isolate the brain regions and expression of proteins associated with synaptic plasticity and cell survival was studied using Western blotting and Quantitative real time PCR. Further, neuroprotective potential of ASH-WEX and its active fraction (FIV) against inflammatory neurodegeneration was studied and validated using in vitro model system of microglial conditioned medium-treated neuronal cultures and microglial-neuronal co-cultures. RESULTS Orally administered ASH-WEX significantly suppressed the cognitive and motor-coordination impairments in rats. On the molecular basis, ASH-WEX supplementation also regulated the expression of various proteins involved in synaptic plasticity and neuronal cell survival. Since microglial-neuronal crosstalk is crucial for maintaining CNS homeostasis, the current study was further extended to ascertain whether LPS-mediated microglial activation caused damage to neurons via direct cell to cell contact or through secretion of inflammatory mediators. ASH-WEX and FIV pretreatment was found to restore neurite outgrowth and protect neurons from apoptotic cell death caused by LPS-induced neuroinflammation in both activated microglial conditioned medium-treated neuronal cultures as well as microglial-neuronal co-cultures. CONCLUSION This extensive study using in vivo and in vitro model systems provides first ever pre-clinical evidence that ASH-WEX can be used as a promising natural therapeutic remedial for the prevention of neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments associated with peripheral inflammation and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muskan Gupta
- Department of Biotechnology, Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Amritsar, Punjab 143005 India
| | - Gurcharan Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology, Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Amritsar, Punjab 143005 India
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Alzoubi KH, Al Hilo AS, Al-Balas QA, El-Salem K, El-Elimat T, Alali FQ. Withania somnifera root powder protects againist post-traumatic stress disorder-induced memory impairment. Mol Biol Rep 2019; 46:4709-4715. [PMID: 31218539 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-019-04915-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is precipitated by exposure to severe traumatic events such as wars, natural disasters, catastrophes, or other traumatic events. Withania somnifera (WS) Dunal (family: Solanaceae) known traditionally as "Ashwaghanda" is used widely in ayurvedic medicine, and known to have positive role in neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, WS effect on impairment of memory due to PTSD was studied in animal models. Single-prolonged stress rat model, which consisted of restrain for 2 h, forced swimming for 20 min, rest for 15 min, and diethyl ether exposure for 1-2 min, was used to induce PTSD animals. The WS root powder extract was administered orally at a dose of 500 mg/kg/day. The radial arm water maze (RAWM) was used to assess spatial learning and memory. Enzymatic assays were used to evaluate changes in oxidative stress biomarkers in the hippocampus following treatments. The result showed that PTSD resulted in short- and long- term memory impairments. Administration of WS prevented this impairment of memory induced by PTSD. Furthermore, WS prevented PTSD induced changes in oxidative stress biomarker in the hippocampus. For quality assessment, the methanolic extract for WS was subjected to UHPLC analysis. A calibration curve for isowithanone as a marker compound was constructed. WS roots content of isowithanone was found to be 0.23% (w/w). In conclusion, WS administration prevented PTSD induced memory impairment probably through preserving changes in antioxidant mechanisms in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karem H Alzoubi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, 22110, Jordan.
| | - Arwa S Al Hilo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 3030, Irbid, 22110, Jordan
| | - Qosay A Al-Balas
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Khalid El-Salem
- Department of Neurosciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Tamam El-Elimat
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Feras Q Alali
- College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, 2713, Qatar
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Baghel MS, Singh B, Dhuriya YK, Shukla RK, Patro N, Khanna VK, Patro IK, Thakur MK. Postnatal exposure to poly (I:C) impairs learning and memory through changes in synaptic plasticity gene expression in developing rat brain. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 155:379-389. [PMID: 30195050 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Viral infection during early stage of life influences brain development and results in several neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia, autism and behavioral abnormalities. However, the mechanism through which infection causes long-term behavioral defects is not well known. To elucidate this, we have used synthetic polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid [poly (I:C)] which acts as a dsRNA molecule and interacts with toll-like receptor-3 (TLR-3) of microglia cells to evoke the immune system, thus mimicking the viral infection. Rat pups of postnatal day (PND) 7 were infused with a single dose of poly (I:C) (5 mg/kg BW) and vehicle alone to controls. When these pups grew to 3, 6 and 12 weeks, their spatial and fear conditioning memory were impaired as assessed by Morris water maze and passive avoidance test, respectively. We checked the immune activation by staining of TNF-α in the hippocampus and observed that poly (I:C) exposure elevated the number of TNF-α positive cells immediately after 12 h of infusion in one week rat and it persisted up to postnatal age of 3 and 12 weeks. Moreover, poly (I:C) significantly decreased the binding of 3H-QNB to the cholinergic receptors in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of 3 and 6 weeks rats as compared to control but did not change significantly in 12 weeks rats. RT-PCR and immunoblotting results showed that poly (I:C) exposure upregulated the expression of memory associated genes (BDNF, Arc, EGR1) at mRNA and protein level in frontal cortex and hippocampus of 3 weeks rats as compared to control. However, long-time persistence of poly (I:C) effects significantly decreased the expression of these genes in both brain regions of 12 weeks rats. Taken together, it is evident that early life exposure to poly (I:C) has a long-term effect and impairs learning and memory, probably through TNF-α mediated neuroinflammation and alteration in the expression of memory associated genes in frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brijendra Singh
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 011, India
| | - Yogesh Kumar Dhuriya
- CSIR - Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India
| | - Rajendra Kumar Shukla
- CSIR - Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India
| | - Nisha Patro
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 011, India
| | - Vinay Kumar Khanna
- CSIR - Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, 31 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow 226 001, India
| | - Ishan Kumar Patro
- School of Studies in Neuroscience, Jiwaji University, Gwalior 474 011, India
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Garg S, Kaul SC, Wadhwa R. Anti-Stress and Glial Differentiation Effects of a Novel Combination of Cucurbitacin B and Withanone (CucWi-N): Experimental Evidence. Ann Neurosci 2018; 25:201-209. [PMID: 31000958 DOI: 10.1159/000490693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Natural extracts and compounds used in traditional home medicine are known for their safety and a variety of health promoting and therapeutic potentials. In contrast to the single molecule mediated targets, the combinational therapies are preferred for their multi-functional and limited toxic regimens and may be useful for disease therapeutics as well as to increase the quality of life during a variety of environmental stresses. Purpose We aimed to combine the active ingredients of Chinese (Helicteres angustifolia) and Indian (Withania somnifera) ginsengs to develop a natural, efficient, and welfare combinatorial mixture with high anti-stress and glial differentiation potentials. Methods Using cultured cells as a model system, we developed a combination of active ingredients of Chinese (Cucurbitacin B [Cuc]) and Indian (Withanone [Wi-N]) ginsengs. Eleven chemical models of environmental stresses were used. Cytotoxicity studies were performed using human skin fibroblast for anti-stress and rat glioma cells for glial differentiation effects. Results We demonstrate that the novel combination of Cuc and Wi-N, CucWi-N, was non-toxic to normal cells. It caused stress protection in assays using normal human fibroblasts subjected to a variety of stresses. Of note, cells showed remarkable protection against oxidative and UV stresses and marked by decrease in DNA damage and reactive oxygen species. We examined and found the glial differentiation potential of CucWi-N in rat glioblastoma cells. CucWi-N clearly induced differentiation phenotype, well-marked with upregulation of GAP43, MAP2, and GFAP, which have been shown to play a key role in glial differentiation. Conclusion These data demonstrate anti-stress and glial differentiation potential of CucWi-N (a novel combination of Cuc and Wi-N) that could be recruited in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical avenues and hence warrant further evaluation and mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sukant Garg
- DBT-AIST International laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan.,School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Sunil C Kaul
- DBT-AIST International laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- DBT-AIST International laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan.,School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
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Vdac1 Downregulation Causes Mitochondrial Disintegration Leading to Hippocampal Neurodegeneration in Scopolamine-Induced Amnesic Mice. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1707-1718. [PMID: 29916145 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1164-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Our previous report on hippocampal proteome analysis suggested the involvement of voltage-dependent anion channel (Vdac) 1 in scopolamine-induced amnesia. Further silencing of Vdac1 in young mice reduced the recognition memory. Vdac1 is a porin protein present abundantly on outer mitochondrial membrane. It acts as a transporter of energy metabolites ATP/ADP and Ca2+ ions and helps in communication between mitochondrial matrix and cytosol. As Vdac1-associated energy metabolism may be affected during amnesia, we determined the downstream function of Vdac1 in the present study. The expression of Vdac1 and total ATP level was decreased in the hippocampus of scopolamine-induced amnesic mice. Also, the mitochondrial membrane potential, cristae organization, and morphology were disrupted leading to increased ROS generation and reduced SOD and catalase activity. On the other hand, there was increase in the expression of pro-apoptotic marker proteins (Bax, Bad, Casp 3), leading to rising degenerated neuronal cells in the dentate gyrus and Cornu ammonis 3 and 1 subregions of the hippocampus during amnesia. Further, to check whether Vdac1 downregulation is associated with neurodegeneration, we infused Vdac1 siRNA stereotaxically in the hippocampus of normal young mice. As compared to control, Vdac1 silencing decreased ATP level and mitochondrial membrane potential leading to increase in the number of degenerated neuronal cells in subregions of the hippocampus. Taken together, our study shows that downregulation of Vdac1 causes neurodegeneration through mitochondrial disintegration in the hippocampus of scopolamine-induced amnesic mice.
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Srivas S, Thakur MK. Transcriptional co-repressor SIN3A silencing rescues decline in memory consolidation during scopolamine-induced amnesia. J Neurochem 2018; 145:204-216. [PMID: 29494759 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Revised: 01/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic modifications through methylation of DNA and acetylation of histones modulate neuronal gene expression and regulate long-term memory. Earlier we demonstrated that scopolamine-induced decrease in memory consolidation is correlated with enhanced expression of hippocampal DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) in mice. DNMT1 and HDAC2 act together by recruiting a co-repressor complex and deacetylating the chromatin. The catalytic activity of HDACs is mainly dependent on its incorporation into multiprotein co-repressor complexes, among which SIN3A-HDAC2 co-repressor is widely studied to regulate synaptic plasticity. However, the involvement of co-repressor complex in regulating memory loss or amnesia is unexplored. This study examines the role of co-repressor SIN3A in scopolamine-induced amnesia through epigenetic changes in the hippocampus. Scopolamine treatment remarkably enhanced hippocampal SIN3A expression in mice. To prevent such increase in SIN3A expression, we used hippocampal infusion of SIN3A-siRNA and assessed the effect of SIN3A silencing on scopolamine-induced amnesia. Silencing of SIN3A in amnesic mice reduced the binding of HDAC2 at neuronal immediate early genes (IEGs) promoter, but did not change the expression of HDAC2. Furthermore, it increased acetylation of H3K9 and H3K14 at neuronal IEGs (Arc, Egr1, Homer1 and Narp) promoter, prevented scopolamine-induced down-regulation of IEGs and improved consolidation of memory during novel object recognition task. These findings together suggest that SIN3A has a critical role in regulation of synaptic plasticity and might act as a potential therapeutic target to rescue memory decline during amnesia and other neuropsychiatric pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sweta Srivas
- Department of Zoology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Department of Zoology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Baghel MS, Thakur MK. Differential proteome profiling in the hippocampus of amnesic mice. Hippocampus 2017; 27:845-859. [PMID: 28449397 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Amnesia or memory loss is associated with brain aging and several neurodegenerative pathologies including Alzheimer's disease (AD). This can be induced by a cholinergic antagonist scopolamine but the underlying molecular mechanism is poorly understood. This study of proteome profiling in the hippocampus could provide conceptual insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in amnesia. To reveal this, mice were administered scopolamine to induce amnesia and memory impairment was validated by novel object recognition test. Using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled with MALDI-MS/MS, we have analyzed the hippocampal proteome and identified 18 proteins which were differentially expressed. Out of these proteins, 11 were downregulated and 7 were upregulated in scopolamine-treated mice as compared to control. In silico analysis showed that the majority of identified proteins are involved in metabolism, catalytic activity, and cytoskeleton architectural functions. STRING interaction network analysis revealed that majority of identified proteins exhibit common association with Actg1 cytoskeleton and Vdac1 energy transporter protein. Furthermore, interaction map analysis showed that Fascin1 and Coronin 1b individually interact with Actg1 and regulate the actin filament dynamics. Vdac1 was significantly downregulated in amnesic mice and showed interaction with other proteins in interaction network. Therefore, we silenced Vdac1 in the hippocampus of normal young mice and found similar impairment in recognition memory of Vdac1 silenced and scopolamine-treated mice. Thus, these findings suggest that Vdac1-mediated disruption of energy metabolism and cytoskeleton architecture might be involved in scopolamine-induced amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghraj Singh Baghel
- Department of Zoology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Mahendra Kumar Thakur
- Department of Zoology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
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Singh P, Thakur MK. Histone Deacetylase 2 Inhibition Attenuates Downregulation of Hippocampal Plasticity Gene Expression during Aging. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:2432-2442. [PMID: 28364391 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0490-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The brain undergoes several anatomical, biochemical, and molecular changes during aging, which subsequently result in downregulation of synaptic plasticity genes and decline of memory. However, the regulation of these genes during aging is not clearly understood. Previously, we reported that the expression of histone deacetylase (HDAC)2 was upregulated in the hippocampus of old mice and negatively correlated with the decline in recognition memory. As HDAC2 regulates key synaptic plasticity neuronal immediate early genes (IEGs), we have examined their expression and epigenetic regulation. We noted that the expression of neuronal IEGs decreased both at mRNA and protein level in the hippocampus of old mice. To explore the underlying regulation, we analyzed the binding of HDAC2 and level of histone acetylation at the promoter of neuronal IEGs. While the binding of HDAC2 was higher, H3K9 and H3K14 acetylation level was lower at the promoter of these genes in old as compared to young and adult mice. Further, we inhibited HDAC2 non-specifically by sodium butyrate and specifically by antisense oligonucleotide to recover epigenetic modification, expression of neuronal IEGs, and memory in old mice. Inhibition of HDAC2 increased histone H3K9 and H3K14 acetylation level at the promoter of neuronal IEGs, their expression, and recognition memory in old mice as compared to control. Thus, inhibition of HDAC2 can be used as a therapeutic target to recover decline in memory due to aging and associated neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmanabh Singh
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India
| | - M K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India.
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Kaushik MK, Kaul SC, Wadhwa R, Yanagisawa M, Urade Y. Triethylene glycol, an active component of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) leaves, is responsible for sleep induction. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172508. [PMID: 28207892 PMCID: PMC5313221 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Insomnia is the most common sleep complaint which occurs due to difficulty in falling asleep or maintaining it. Most of currently available drugs for insomnia develop dependency and/or adverse effects. Hence natural therapies could be an alternative choice of treatment for insomnia. The root or whole plant extract of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) has been used to induce sleep in Indian system of traditional home medicine, Ayurveda. However, its active somnogenic components remain unidentified. We investigated the effect of various components of Ashwagandha leaf on sleep regulation by oral administration in mice. We found that the alcoholic extract that contained high amount of active withanolides was ineffective to induce sleep in mice. However, the water extract which contain triethylene glycol as a major component induced significant amount of non-rapid eye movement sleep with slight change in rapid eye movement sleep. Commercially available triethylene glycol also increased non-rapid eye movement sleep in mice in a dose-dependent (10–30 mg/mouse) manner. These results clearly demonstrated that triethylene glycol is an active sleep-inducing component of Ashwagandha leaves and could potentially be useful for insomnia therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh K. Kaushik
- Department of Molecular Sleep, International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- Department of Molecular Genetics, International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- * E-mail: (MKK); (YU)
| | - Sunil C. Kaul
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Lab, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Lab, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Higashi 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Masashi Yanagisawa
- Department of Molecular Genetics, International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Urade
- Department of Molecular Sleep, International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- * E-mail: (MKK); (YU)
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Kaul SC, Ishida Y, Tamura K, Wada T, Iitsuka T, Garg S, Kim M, Gao R, Nakai S, Okamoto Y, Terao K, Wadhwa R. Novel Methods to Generate Active Ingredients-Enriched Ashwagandha Leaves and Extracts. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166945. [PMID: 27936030 PMCID: PMC5147857 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an Ayurvedic herb commonly used in world-renowned traditional Indian home medicine system. Roots of Ashwagandha have been traditionally known to possess a variety of therapeutic and health promoting potentials that have not been sufficiently supported by laboratory studies. Nevertheless, most, if not all, of the preventive and therapeutic potentials have been assigned to its bioactive components, steroidal alkaloids and lactones. In contrast to the traditional use of roots, we have been exploring bioactivities in leaves of Ashwagandha. Here, we report that the leaves possess higher content of active Withanolides, Withaferin-A (Wi-A) and Withanone (Wi-N), as compared to the roots. We also established, for the first time, hydroponic cultivation of Ashwagandha and investigated the effect of various cultivation conditions on the content of Wi-A and Wi-N by chemical analysis and bioassays. We report that the Withanone/Withaferin A-rich leaves could be obtained by manipulating light condition during hydroponic cultivation. Furthermore, we recruited cyclodextrins to prepare extracts with desired ratio of Wi-N and Wi-A. Hydroponically grown Ashwagandha and its extracts with high ratio of withanolides are valuable for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil C. Kaul
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Ishida
- CycloChem Co., Ltd., 7-4-5 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Japan
| | - Kazuya Tamura
- DAI-DAN Co., Ltd., 390 Kitanagai, Miyoshi-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama, Japan
| | - Teruo Wada
- Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Nakakugakuencho, Sakai-city, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomoko Iitsuka
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Sukant Garg
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
- School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Mijung Kim
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ran Gao
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Shoichi Nakai
- DAI-DAN Co., Ltd., 390 Kitanagai, Miyoshi-machi, Iruma-gun, Saitama, Japan
| | - Youji Okamoto
- Zuiron Private Ltd., 2-3-1 Nakajyosanjimacho, Tokushima-city, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Keiji Terao
- CycloChem Co., Ltd., 7-4-5 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Japan
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- Drug Discovery and Assets Innovation Laboratory, DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
- School of Integrative and Global Majors, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Srivas S, Thakur MK. Epigenetic regulation of neuronal immediate early genes is associated with decline in their expression and memory consolidation in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:5107-5119. [PMID: 27553230 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0047-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Recently, we reported a correlation of scopolamine mediated decline in memory consolidation with increase in the expression of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) in the mouse hippocampus. Memory consolidation is a protein synthesis-dependent process which involves the expression of synaptic plasticity genes, particularly neuronal immediate early genes (IEGs). However, the mechanism of regulation of these genes during decline in memory is poorly understood. Therefore, we have studied the epigenetic regulation of expression of neuronal IEGs in scopolamine-induced amnesic mice. Scopolamine significantly impaired memory consolidation as tested by radial arm maze, and the expression of neuronal IEGs was downregulated in the hippocampus as revealed by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Further, methylated DNA immunoprecipitation (MeDIP) analysis showed increase in DNA methylation, while chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) revealed decrease in H3K9/14 acetylation at the promoter of neuronal IEGs. Taken together, the present study shows that increased DNA methylation and decreased histone acetylation at the promoter of neuronal IEGs are associated with decline in their expression and memory consolidation during scopolamine-induced amnesia. These findings suggest that the epigenetic regulation through altered DNA methylation and histone acetylation might be explored further to develop potential therapeutic interventions for amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sweta Srivas
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Institute of Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Institute of Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221 005, India.
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Manchanda S, Mishra R, Singh R, Kaur T, Kaur G. Aqueous Leaf Extract of Withania somnifera as a Potential Neuroprotective Agent in Sleep-deprived Rats: a Mechanistic Study. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3050-3061. [PMID: 27037574 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9883-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Modern lifestyle and sustained stress of professional commitments in the current societal set up often disrupts the normal sleep cycle and duration which is known to lead to cognitive impairments. In the present study, we report whether leaf extract of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) has potential neuroprotective role in acute stress of sleep deprivation. Experiments were performed on three groups of adult Wistar rats: group 1 (vehicle treated-undisturbed sleep [VUD]), group 2 (vehicle treated-sleep deprived [VSD]), and group 3 (ASH-WEX treated-sleep deprived [WSD]). Groups 1 and 2 received single oral feeding of vehicle and group 3 received ASH-WEX orally (140 mg/kg or 1 ml/250 g of body weight) for 15 consecutive days. Immediately after this regimen, animals from group 1 were allowed undisturbed sleep (between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m.), whereas rats of groups 2 and 3 were deprived of sleep during this period. We observed that WSD rats showed significant improvement in their performance in behavioral tests as compared to VSD group. At the molecular level, VSD rats showed acute change in the expression of proteins involved in synaptic plasticity, cell survival, and apoptosis in the hippocampus region of brain, which was suppressed by ASH-WEX treatment thus indicating decreased cellular stress and apoptosis in WSD group. This data suggest that Ashwagandha may be a potential agent to suppress the acute effects of sleep loss on learning and memory impairments and may emerge as a novel supplement to control SD-induced cognitive impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaffi Manchanda
- Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Rachana Mishra
- Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Rumani Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118, USA
| | - Taranjeet Kaur
- Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, India
| | - Gurcharan Kaur
- Medical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, India.
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Nootropic potential of Ashwagandha leaves: Beyond traditional root extracts. Neurochem Int 2015; 95:109-18. [PMID: 26361721 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Rapidly increasing aging population and environmental stressors are the two main global concerns of the modern society. These have brought in light rapidly increasing incidence of a variety of pathological conditions including brain tumors, neurodegenerative & neuropsychiatric disorders, and new challenges for their treatment. The overlapping symptoms, complex etiology and lack of full understanding of the brain structure and function to-date further complicate these tasks. On the other hand, several herbal reagents with a long history of their use have been asserted to possess neurodifferentiation, neuroregenerative and neuroprotective potentials, and hence been recommended as supplement to enhance and maintain brain health and function. Although they have been claimed to function by holistic approach resulting in maintaining body homeostasis and brain health, there are not enough laboratory studies in support to these and mechanism(s) of such beneficial activities remain largely undefined. One such herb is Ashwagandha, also called "Queen of Ayurveda" for its popular use in Indian traditional home medicine because of its extensive benefits including anticancer, anti-stress and remedial potential for aging and neurodegenerative pathologies. However, active principles and underlying mechanism(s) of action remain largely unknown. Here we provide a review on the effects of Ashwagandha extracts and active principles, and underlying molecular mechanism(s) for brain pathologies. We highlight our findings on the nootropic potential of Ashwagandha leaves. The effects of Ashwagandha leaf extracts are multidimensional ranging from differentiation of neuroblastoma and glioma cells, reversal of Alzheimer and Parkinson's pathologies, protection against environmental neurotoxins and enhancement of memory.
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Bacopa monniera (CDRI-08) Upregulates the Expression of Neuronal and Glial Plasticity Markers in the Brain of Scopolamine Induced Amnesic Mice. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2015; 2015:837012. [PMID: 26413129 PMCID: PMC4564643 DOI: 10.1155/2015/837012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical studies on animal models have discerned the antiamnesic and memory-enhancing potential of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) crude extract and standardized extracts. These studies primarily focus on behavioral consequences. However, lack of information on molecular underpinnings has limited the clinical trials of the potent herb in human subjects. In recent years, researchers highlight plasticity markers as molecular correlates of amnesia and being crucial to design therapeutic targets. In the present report, we have investigated the effect of a special extract of B. monniera (CDRI-08) on the expression of key neuronal (BDNF and Arc) and glial (GFAP) plasticity markers in the cerebrum of scopolamine induced amnesic mice. Pre- and postadministration of CDRI-08 ameliorated amnesic effect of scopolamine by decreasing acetyl cholinesterase activity and drastically upregulating the mRNA and protein expression of BDNF, Arc, and GFAP in mouse cerebrum. Interestingly, the plant extract per se elevated BDNF and Arc expression as compared to control but GFAP was unaltered. In conclusion, our findings provide the first molecular evidence for antiamnesic potential of CDRI-08 via enhancement of both neuronal and glial plasticity markers. Further investigations on detailed molecular pathways would encourage therapeutic application of the extract in memory disorders.
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Pandey SP, Singh HK, Prasad S. Alterations in Hippocampal Oxidative Stress, Expression of AMPA Receptor GluR2 Subunit and Associated Spatial Memory Loss by Bacopa monnieri Extract (CDRI-08) in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 Mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131862. [PMID: 26161865 PMCID: PMC4498885 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacopa monnieri extract has been implicated in the recovery of memory impairments due to various neurological disorders in animal models and humans. However, the precise molecular mechanism of the role of CDRI-08, a well characterized fraction of Bacopa monnieri extract, in recovery of the diabetes mellitus-induced memory impairments is not known. Here, we demonstrate that DM2 mice treated orally with lower dose of CDRI-08 (50- or 100 mg/kg BW) is able to significantly enhance spatial memory in STZ-DM2 mice and this is correlated with a significant decline in oxidative stress and up regulation of the AMPA receptor GluR2 subunit gene expression in the hippocampus. Treatment of DM2 mice with its higher dose (150 mg/kg BW or above) shows anti-diabetic effect in addition to its ability to recover the spatial memory impairment by reversing the DM2-induced elevated oxidative stress and decreased GluR2 subunit expression near to their values in normal and CDRI-08 treated control mice. Our results provide evidences towards molecular basis of the memory enhancing and anti diabetic role of the Bacopa monnieri extract in STZ-induced DM2 mice, which may have therapeutic implications.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Bacopa/chemistry
- CA3 Region, Hippocampal/drug effects
- CA3 Region, Hippocampal/metabolism
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/drug therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/metabolism
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/psychology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/drug therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/metabolism
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/psychology
- Drug Evaluation, Preclinical
- Gene Expression/drug effects
- Hypoglycemic Agents/pharmacology
- Hypoglycemic Agents/therapeutic use
- Male
- Malondialdehyde/metabolism
- Maze Learning
- Memory Disorders/drug therapy
- Memory Disorders/metabolism
- Mice
- Oxidative Stress
- Plant Extracts/pharmacology
- Plant Extracts/therapeutic use
- Receptors, AMPA/genetics
- Receptors, AMPA/metabolism
- Spatial Memory/drug effects
- Streptozocin
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Affiliation(s)
- Surya P. Pandey
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology Lab, Centre of Advanced Study in Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Hemant K. Singh
- Lumen Research Foundation, Ashok Nagar, Chennai, 600083, Tamilnadu, India
| | - S. Prasad
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology Lab, Centre of Advanced Study in Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Singh P, Konar A, Kumar A, Srivas S, Thakur MK. Hippocampal chromatin-modifying enzymes are pivotal for scopolamine-induced synaptic plasticity gene expression changes and memory impairment. J Neurochem 2015; 134:642-51. [PMID: 25982413 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The amnesic potential of scopolamine is well manifested through synaptic plasticity gene expression changes and behavioral paradigms of memory impairment. However, the underlying mechanism remains obscure and consequently ideal therapeutic target is lacking. In this context, chromatin-modifying enzymes, which regulate memory gene expression changes, deserve major attention. Therefore, we analyzed the expression of chromatin-modifying enzymes and recovery potential of enzyme modulators in scopolamine-induced amnesia. Scopolamine administration drastically up-regulated DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1) and HDAC2 expression while CREB-binding protein (CBP), DNMT3a and DNMT3b remained unaffected. HDAC inhibitor sodium butyrate and DNMT inhibitor Aza-2'deoxycytidine recovered scopolamine-impaired hippocampal-dependent memory consolidation with concomitant increase in the expression of synaptic plasticity genes Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Arc and level of histone H3K9 and H3K14 acetylation and decrease in DNA methylation level. Sodium butyrate showed more pronounced effect than Aza-2'deoxycytidine and their co-administration did not exhibit synergistic effect on gene expression. Taken together, we showed for the first time that scopolamine-induced up-regulation of chromatin-modifying enzymes, HDAC2 and DNMT1, leads to gene expression changes and consequent decline in memory consolidation. Our findings on the action of scopolamine as an epigenetic modulator can pave a path for ideal therapeutic targets. We propose the following putative pathway for scopolamine-mediated memory impairment; scopolamine up-regulates hippocampal DNMT1 and HDAC2 expression, induces methylation and deacetylation of BDNF and Arc promoter, represses gene expression and eventually impairs memory consolidation. On the other hand, Aza-2 and NaB inhibit DNMT1 and HDAC2 respectively, up-regulate BDNF and Arc expression and recover memory consolidation. We elucidate the action of scopolamine as an epigenetic modulator and hope that DNMT1 and HDAC2 would be ideal therapeutic targets for memory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Padmanabh Singh
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Arpita Konar
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Ashish Kumar
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Sweta Srivas
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Sharma HR, Thakur MK. Correlation of ERα/ERβ expression with dendritic and behavioural changes in CUMS mice. Physiol Behav 2015; 145:71-83. [PMID: 25837835 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.03.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In response to chronic stress, oestrogen receptor (ER)α acts as an anxiogenic agent as opposed to ERβ which predominantly acts as an anxiolytic agent. These properties of ER play an important role in mediating anxiety- and depression-like behaviour and physiological responses. However, the precise underlying mechanism remains unclear. In particular, not much is known about the expression of ERα and ERβ in the stress-sensitive brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. Using a rodent model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), we report that two weeks of CUMS in young male mice (10±2weeks) induces noteworthy changes in the ratio of ERα/ERβ in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. While we observed a significant (P<0.05) increase in ERα mRNA and protein expression levels, the expression of ERβ in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala was significantly reduced. This increase in ERα expression with concomitant decrease in ERβ expression was associated with increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviour as observed in elevated plus maze test, open field test, forced swim test and sucrose preference test. In addition to these behavioural changes, we report the decrease of dendritic complexity with concomitant increase in spine density in the medial prefrontal cortex, dorsohippocampal CA3 region and basolateral complex of amygdala (BLA). Taken together, these results suggest that the CUMS-induced increase in the ratio of ERα/ERβ causes dendritic remodeling, which in turn might be responsible for increase in anxiety- and depression-like behaviour in young male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himanshu R Sharma
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, India
| | - Mahendra K Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, India.
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Shah N, Singh R, Sarangi U, Saxena N, Chaudhary A, Kaur G, Kaul SC, Wadhwa R. Combinations of Ashwagandha leaf extracts protect brain-derived cells against oxidative stress and induce differentiation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120554. [PMID: 25789768 PMCID: PMC4366112 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ashwagandha, a traditional Indian herb, has been known for its variety of therapeutic activities. We earlier demonstrated anticancer activities in the alcoholic and water extracts of the leaves that were mediated by activation of tumor suppressor functions and oxidative stress in cancer cells. Low doses of these extracts were shown to possess neuroprotective activities in vitro and in vivo assays. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We used cultured glioblastoma and neuroblastoma cells to examine the effect of extracts (alcoholic and water) as well as their bioactive components for neuroprotective activities against oxidative stress. Various biochemical and imaging assays on the marker proteins of glial and neuronal cells were performed along with their survival profiles in control, stressed and recovered conditions. We found that the extracts and one of the purified components, withanone, when used at a low dose, protected the glial and neuronal cells from oxidative as well as glutamate insult, and induced their differentiation per se. Furthermore, the combinations of extracts and active component were highly potent endorsing the therapeutic merit of the combinational approach. CONCLUSION Ashwagandha leaf derived bioactive compounds have neuroprotective potential and may serve as supplement for brain health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navjot Shah
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
| | - Rumani Singh
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
| | - Upasana Sarangi
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
| | - Nishant Saxena
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
| | - Anupama Chaudhary
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
| | - Gurcharan Kaur
- Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India
| | - Sunil C. Kaul
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
- * E-mail: (RW); (SCK)
| | - Renu Wadhwa
- Cell Proliferation Research Group and DBT-AIST International Laboratory for Advanced Biomedicine (DAILAB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305-8562, Japan
- * E-mail: (RW); (SCK)
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Singh P, Guleri R, Singh V, Kaur G, Kataria H, Singh B, Kaur G, Kaul SC, Wadhwa R, Pati PK. Biotechnological interventions inWithania somnifera(L.) Dunal. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev 2015; 31:1-20. [DOI: 10.1080/02648725.2015.1020467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Alcoholic Extract of Ashwagandha Leaves Protects Against Amnesia by Regulation of Arc Function. Mol Neurobiol 2015; 53:1760-1769. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9117-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Kumar D, Thakur MK. Perinatal exposure to bisphenol-A impairs spatial memory through upregulation of neurexin1 and neuroligin3 expression in male mouse brain. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110482. [PMID: 25330104 PMCID: PMC4201550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bisphenol-A (BPA), a well known endocrine disruptor, impairs learning and memory in rodents. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of BPA induced impairment in learning and memory is not well known. As synaptic plasticity is the cellular basis of memory, the present study investigated the effect of perinatal exposure to BPA on the expression of synaptic proteins neurexin1 (Nrxn1) and neuroligin3 (Nlgn3), dendritic spine density and spatial memory in postnatal male mice. The pregnant mice were orally administered BPA (50 µg/kgbw/d) from gestation day (GD) 7 to postnatal day (PND) 21 and sesame oil was used as a vehicle control. In Morris water maze (MWM) test, BPA extended the escape latency time to locate the hidden platform in 8 weeks male mice. RT-PCR and Immunoblotting results showed significant upregulation of Nrxn1 and Nlgn3 expression in both cerebral cortex and hippocampus of 3 and 8 weeks male mice. This was further substantiated by in-situ hybridization and immunofluorescence techniques. BPA also significantly increased the density of dendritic spines in both regions, as analyzed by rapid Golgi staining. Thus our data suggest that perinatal exposure to BPA impairs spatial memory through upregulation of expression of synaptic proteins Nrxn1 and Nlgn3 and increased dendritic spine density in cerebral cortex and hippocampus of postnatal male mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhiraj Kumar
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mahendra Kumar Thakur
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Brain Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
- * E-mail:
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Kumari A, Thakur MK. Age-dependent decline of nogo-a protein in the mouse cerebrum. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2014; 34:1131-41. [PMID: 25078756 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-014-0088-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Nogo-A, a myelin-associated neurite growth inhibitory protein, is implicated in synaptic plasticity. It binds to its receptor namely the Nogo-66 receptor1 (NgR1) and regulates filamentous (F) actin dynamics via small GTPases of the Rho family, RhoA kinase (ROCK), LimK and cofilin. These proteins are associated with the structural plasticity, one of the components of synaptic plasticity, which is known to decline with normal aging. So, the level of Nogo-A and its receptor NgR1 are likely to vary during normal brain aging. However, it is not clearly understood how the levels of Nogo-A and its receptor NgR1 change in the cerebrum during aging. Several studies show an age- and gender-dependent decline in synaptic plasticity. Therefore, the present study was planned to analyze the relative changes in the mRNA and protein levels of Nogo-A and NgR1 in both male and female mice cerebrum during normal aging. Western blot analysis has shown decrease in Nogo-A protein level during aging in both male and female mice cerebrum. This was further confirmed by immunofluorescence analysis. RT-PCR analysis of Nogo-A mRNA showed no significant difference in the above-mentioned groups. This was also supported by in situ hybridization. NgR1 protein and its mRNA expression levels showed no significant alteration with aging in the cerebrum of both male and female mice. Taken together, we speculate that the downregulation of Nogo-A protein might have a role in the altered synaptic plasticity during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Kumari
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
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