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Hammond SL, Bantle CM, Popichak KA, Wright KA, Thompson D, Forero C, Kirkley KS, Damale PU, Chong EKP, Tjalkens RB. NF-κB Signaling in Astrocytes Modulates Brain Inflammation and Neuronal Injury Following Sequential Exposure to Manganese and MPTP During Development and Aging. Toxicol Sci 2021; 177:506-520. [PMID: 32692843 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfaa115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic exposure to manganese (Mn) is associated with neuroinflammation and extrapyramidal motor deficits resembling features of Parkinson's disease. Activation of astrocytes and microglia is implicated in neuronal injury from Mn but it is not known whether early life exposure to Mn may predispose glia to more severe inflammatory responses during aging. We therefore examined astrocyte nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling in mediating innate immune inflammatory responses during multiple neurotoxic exposures spanning juvenile development into adulthood. MnCl2 was given in drinking water for 30-day postweaning to both wildtype mice and astrocyte-specific knockout (KO) mice lacking I kappa B kinase 2, the central upstream activator of NF-κB. Following juvenile exposure to Mn, mice were subsequently administered 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) at 4 months of age. Animals were evaluated for behavioral alterations and brain tissue was analyzed for catecholamine neurotransmitters. Stereological analysis of neuronal and glial cell counts from multiple brain regions indicated that juvenile exposure to Mn amplified glial activation and neuronal loss from MPTP exposure in the caudate-putamen and globus pallidus, as well as increased the severity of neurobehavioral deficits in open field activity assays. These alterations were prevented in astrocyte-specific I kappa B kinase 2 KO mice. Juvenile exposure to Mn increased the number of neurotoxic A1 astrocytes expressing C3 as well as the number of activated microglia in adult mice following MPTP challenge, both of which were inhibited in KO mice. These results demonstrate that exposure to Mn during juvenile development heightens the innate immune inflammatory response in glia during a subsequent neurotoxic challenge through NF-κB signaling in astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean L Hammond
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Collin M Bantle
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Katriana A Popichak
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Katie A Wright
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Delaney Thompson
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Catalina Forero
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Kelly S Kirkley
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
| | - Pranav U Damale
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1680
| | - Edwin K P Chong
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1680
| | - Ronald B Tjalkens
- Toxicology Program, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences
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2
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Tseng C, Chien Y, Lee N, Hsu Y, Peng S, Tseng WI, Hwu W. Gene therapy improves brain white matter in aromatic l‐amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. Ann Neurol 2019; 85:644-652. [DOI: 10.1002/ana.25467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chih‐Hsien Tseng
- Institute of Biomedical EngineeringNational Taiwan University College of Medicine Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yin‐Hsiu Chien
- Department of Pediatrics and Medical GeneticsNational Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine Taipei Taiwan
| | - Ni‐Chung Lee
- Department of Pediatrics and Medical GeneticsNational Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yung‐Chin Hsu
- Department of Medical ImagingNational Taiwan University Hospital Taipei Taiwan
| | - Shinn‐Forng Peng
- Department of Medical ImagingNational Taiwan University Hospital Taipei Taiwan
| | - Wen‐Yih I. Tseng
- Department of Medical ImagingNational Taiwan University Hospital Taipei Taiwan
- Institute of Medical Device and ImagingNational Taiwan University College of Medicine Taipei Taiwan
| | - Wuh‐Liang Hwu
- Department of Pediatrics and Medical GeneticsNational Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine Taipei Taiwan
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3
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Oliveri AN, Levin ED. Dopamine D 1 and D 2 receptor antagonism during development alters later behavior in zebrafish. Behav Brain Res 2018; 356:250-256. [PMID: 30172631 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This study sought to examine the long-term behavioral impacts of dopamine D1 and D2 receptor antagonism during development in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Zebrafish embryos of both the AB* and 5D strains were exposed via immersion to either the D1 receptor antagonist SCH-23,390 or the D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol, at either 0.5 or 1.5-μM, from 5 h post-fertilization to 5 days post-fertilization. Aquarium water served as a control. Fish were then either tested as larvae on day 6 post-fertilization on a light/dark locomotor assay, or were grown to adulthood and tested on a behavioral battery that included assays for novel environment exploration, startle habituation, social affiliation, and predator escape (AB* strain only). Overall, developmental exposure to dopamine D1 and D2 receptor antagonists caused clear effects in larval locomotor behavior, driving hyperactivity in dark phases and hypoactivity in light phases. Additionally, control fish from the two strains were significantly different from each other (p < 0.05) with the AB* fish being more active than SD during the dark periods of the test. In the adult behavioral battery, developmental exposure to 1.5-μM of the D1 antagonist SCH-23390 significantly reduced activity (p < 0.05) in the predator escape assay. Despite the fact that embryonic exposure to D1 and D2 receptor antagonists caused clear behavioral alterations in larval activity there were much more subtle effects persisting into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony N Oliveri
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, 27710, NC, USA
| | - Edward D Levin
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, 27710, NC, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, 27710, NC, USA.
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4
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Chien YH, Lee NC, Tseng SH, Tai CH, Muramatsu SI, Byrne BJ, Hwu WL. Efficacy and safety of AAV2 gene therapy in children with aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency: an open-label, phase 1/2 trial. THE LANCET CHILD & ADOLESCENT HEALTH 2017; 1:265-273. [DOI: 10.1016/s2352-4642(17)30125-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Lee Stubbeman B, Brown CJ, Yates JR, Bardgett ME. Early-life risperidone enhances locomotor responses to amphetamine during adulthood. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 812:256-263. [PMID: 28716726 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Antipsychotic drug prescriptions for pediatric populations have increased over the past 20 years, particularly the use of atypical antipsychotic drugs such as risperidone. Most antipsychotic drugs target forebrain dopamine systems, and early-life antipsychotic drug exposure could conceivably reset forebrain neurotransmitter function in a permanent manner that persists into adulthood. This study determined whether chronic risperidone administration during development modified locomotor responses to the dopamine/norepinephrine agonist, D-amphetamine, in adult rats. Thirty-five male Long-Evans rats received an injection of one of four doses of risperidone (vehicle, .3, 1.0, 3.0mg/kg) each day from postnatal day 14 through 42. Locomotor activity was measured for 1h on postnatal days 46 and 47, and then for 24h once a week over the next two weeks. Beginning on postnatal day 75, rats received one of four doses of amphetamine (saline, .3, 1.0, 3.0mg/kg) once a week for four weeks. Locomotor activity was measured for 27h after amphetamine injection. Rats administered risperidone early in life demonstrated increased activity during the 1 and 24h test sessions conducted prior to postnatal day 75. Taking into account baseline group differences, these same rats exhibited significantly more locomotor activity in response to the moderate dose of amphetamine relative to controls. These results suggest that early-life treatment with atypical antipsychotic drugs, like risperidone, permanently alters forebrain catecholamine function and increases sensitivity to drugs that target such function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobbie Lee Stubbeman
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41076, USA.
| | - Clifford J Brown
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41076, USA.
| | - Justin R Yates
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41076, USA.
| | - Mark E Bardgett
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41076, USA.
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Moe AAK, Scott JG, Burne TH, Eyles DW. Neural changes induced by antipsychotic administration in adolescence: A review of studies in laboratory rodents. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:771-94. [PMID: 27413140 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116654776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is characterized by major remodelling processes in the brain. Use of antipsychotic drugs (APDs) in adolescents has increased dramatically in the last 20 years; however, our understanding of the neurobiological consequences of APD treatment on the adolescent brain has not kept the same pace and significant concerns have been raised. In this review, we examined currently available preclinical studies of the effects of APDs on the adolescent brain. In animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders, adolescent APD treatment appears to be protective against selected structural, behavioural and neurochemical phenotypes. In "neurodevelopmentally normal" adolescent animals, a range of short- and long-term alterations in behaviour and neurochemistry have been reported. In particular, the adolescent brain appears to be sensitive to long-term locomotor/reward effects of chronic atypical APDs in contrast with the outcomes in adults. Long-lasting changes in dopaminergic, glutamatergic and gamma-amino butyric acid-ergic systems induced by adolescent APD administration have been observed in the nucleus accumbens. A detailed examination of other potential target regions such as striatum, prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area is still required. Through identification of specific neural pathways targeted by adolescent APD treatment, future studies will expand the current knowledge on long-term neural outcomes which are of translational value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aung Aung Kywe Moe
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - James G Scott
- Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Wacol, QLD, Australia Discipline of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Herston, QLD, Australia Metro North Mental Health Service, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, QLD, Australia
| | - Thomas Hj Burne
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Wacol, QLD, Australia
| | - Darryl W Eyles
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Wacol, QLD, Australia
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Bardgett ME, Franks-Henry JM, Colemire KR, Juneau KR, Stevens RM, Marczinski CA, Griffith MS. Adult rats treated with risperidone during development are hyperactive. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2013; 21:259-67. [PMID: 23750695 PMCID: PMC4041194 DOI: 10.1037/a0031972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Risperidone is an antipsychotic drug approved for use in children, but little is known about the long-term effects of early-life risperidone treatment. In animals, prolonged risperidone administration during development increases forebrain dopamine receptor expression immediately upon the cessation of treatment. A series of experiments was performed to ascertain whether early-life risperidone administration altered locomotor activity, a behavior sensitive to dopamine receptor function, in adult rats. One additional behavior modulated by forebrain dopamine function, spatial reversal learning, was also measured during adulthood. In each study, Long-Evans rats received daily subcutaneous injections of vehicle or 1 of 2 doses of risperidone (1.0 and 3.0 mg/kg per day) from postnatal Days 14 to 42. Weight gain during development was slightly yet significantly reduced in risperidone-treated rats. In the first 2 experiments, early-life risperidone administration was associated with increased locomotor activity at 1 week postadministration through approximately 9 months of age, independent of changes in weight gain. In a separate experiment, it was found that the enhancing effect of early-life risperidone on locomotor activity occurred in males and female rats. A final experiment indicated that spatial reversal learning was unaffected in adult rats administered risperidone early in life. These results indicate that locomotor activity during adulthood is permanently modified by early-life risperidone treatment. The findings suggest that chronic antipsychotic drug use in pediatric populations (e.g., treatment for the symptoms of autism) could modify brain development and alter neural set points for specific behaviors during adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Bardgett
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, 1 Campus Drive, Highland Heights, KY 41076, USA.
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8
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Hwu WL, Muramatsu SI, Tseng SH, Tzen KY, Lee NC, Chien YH, Snyder RO, Byrne BJ, Tai CH, Wu RM. Gene therapy for aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. Sci Transl Med 2012; 4:134ra61. [PMID: 22593174 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) is required for the synthesis of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. Children with defects in the AADC gene show compromised development, particularly in motor function. Drug therapy has only marginal effects on some of the symptoms and does not change early childhood mortality. Here, we performed adeno-associated viral vector-mediated gene transfer of the human AADC gene bilaterally into the putamen of four patients 4 to 6 years of age. All of the patients showed improvements in motor performance: One patient was able to stand 16 months after gene transfer, and the other three patients achieved supported sitting 6 to 15 months after gene transfer. Choreic dyskinesia was observed in all patients, but this resolved after several months. Positron emission tomography revealed increased uptake by the putamen of 6-[(18)F]fluorodopa, a tracer for AADC. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis showed increased dopamine and serotonin levels after gene transfer. Thus, gene therapy targeting primary AADC deficiency is well tolerated and leads to improved motor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuh-Liang Hwu
- Department of Pediatrics and Medical Genetics, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 100, Taiwan.
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Lane DA, Chan J, Fitzgerald ML, Kearn CS, Mackie K, Pickel VM. Quinpirole elicits differential in vivo changes in the pre- and postsynaptic distributions of dopamine D₂ receptors in mouse striatum: relation to cannabinoid-1 (CB₁) receptor targeting. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 221:101-13. [PMID: 22160162 PMCID: PMC3323820 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2553-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The nucleus accumbens (Acb) shell and caudate-putamen nucleus (CPu) are respectively implicated in the motivational and motor effects of dopamine, which are mediated in part through dopamine D₂-like receptors (D₂Rs) and modulated by activation of the cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB₁R). The dopamine D(₂/D3) receptor agonist, quinpirole elicits internalization of D₂Rs in isolated cells; however, dendritic and axonal targeting of D₂Rs may be highly influenced by circuit-dependent changes in vivo and potentially influenced by endogenous CB₁R activation. OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether quinpirole alters the surface/cytoplasmic partitioning of D₂Rs in striatal neurons in vivo. METHODS To address this question, we examined the electron microscopic immunolabeling of D₂ and CB₁ receptors in the Acb shell and CPu of male mice at 1 h following a single subcutaneous injection of quinpirole (0.5 mg/kg) or saline, a time point when quinpirole reduced locomotor activity. RESULTS Many neuronal profiles throughout the striatum of both treatment groups expressed the D₂R and/or CB₁R. As compared with saline, quinpirole-injected mice showed a significant region-specific decrease in the plasmalemmal and increase in the cytoplasmic density of D₂R-immunogold particles in postsynaptic dendrites without CB₁R-immunolabeling in the Acb shell. However, quinpirole produced a significant increase in the plasmalemmal density of D₂R immunogold in CB₁R negative axons in both the Acb shell and CPu. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide in vivo evidence for agonist-induced D₂R trafficking that is inversely related to CB₁R distribution in postsynaptic neurons of Acb shell and in presynaptic axons in this region and in the CPu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane A. Lane
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - June Chan
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Megan L. Fitzgerald
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065 USA
| | - Chris S. Kearn
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - Ken Mackie
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, MSBII 120, Indiana University, 702 N Walnut Grove Ave, Bloomington, IN 47405-2204 USA
| | - Virginia M. Pickel
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Weill-Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065 USA ,Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Cornell University Medical College, 407 East 61st St, New York, NY 10065 USA
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Soiza-Reilly M, Azcurra JM. Activity-dependent reduction of dopamine D2 receptors during a postnatal critical period of plasticity in rat striatum is not affected by prenatal haloperidol treatment. Int J Dev Neurosci 2011; 29:855-60. [PMID: 21856408 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2011.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Revised: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor activity induced in the Circling Training test (CT) during a postnatal (PN) critical period of plasticity (PN30-37) produces a long-lasting decrease in the number of binding sites and mRNA expression levels of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) in rat striatum. Prenatal exposure to the antipsychotic haloperidol also decreases postnatal levels of the striatal D2R in the offspring. We examined whether such fetal exposure to haloperidol could affect the activity-dependent reduction of the D2R system during the critical period. Half of the male offspring exposed to either haloperidol (2.5 mg/kg/day), i.p.) or saline during gestational days 5-18 were subjected to the CT during the critical period, while the remaining represented CT control animals. The adult number of binding sites and mRNA expression levels of the striatal D2R at PN90 were not changed by prenatal haloperidol treatment alone. On the other hand, only pups subjected to the CT during the critical period showed decreases in both studied parameters, regardless the prenatal treatment. These findings indicated that the postnatal reduction of the striatal D2R binding induced prenatally by haloperidol does not affect long-lasting activity-dependent plastic changes on the same receptor system elicited by motor activity in an ontogenetic critical period of plasticity in rat striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano Soiza-Reilly
- Laboratorio de Biología Celular, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160 (C1428EGA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Moreno JA, Streifel KM, Sullivan KA, Legare ME, Tjalkens RB. Developmental exposure to manganese increases adult susceptibility to inflammatory activation of glia and neuronal protein nitration. Toxicol Sci 2009; 112:405-15. [PMID: 19812365 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic exposure to manganese (Mn) produces a neurodegenerative disorder affecting the basal ganglia characterized by reactive gliosis and expression of neuroinflammatory genes including inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2). Induction of NOS2 in glial cells causes overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) and injury to neurons that is associated with parkinsonian-like motor deficits. Inflammatory activation of glia is believed to be an early event in Mn neurotoxicity, but specific responses of microglia and astrocytes to Mn during development remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of juvenile exposure to Mn on the activation of glia and production of NO in C57Bl/6J mice, postulating that developmental Mn exposure would lead to heightened sensitivity to gliosis and increased expression of NOS2 in adult mice exposed again later in life. Immunohistochemical analysis indicated that Mn exposure caused increased activation of both microglia and astrocytes in the striatum (St), globus pallidus (Gp), and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr) of treated mice compared with controls. More robust activation of microglia was observed in juveniles, whereas astrogliosis was more prominent in adult mice preexposed during development. Co-immunofluorescence studies demonstrated increased expression of NOS2 in glia located in the Gp and SNpr. Additionally, greater increases in the level of 3-nitrotyrosine protein adducts were detected in dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein-32-positive neurons of the St of Mn-treated adult mice preexposed as juveniles. These data indicate that subchronic exposure to Mn during development leads to temporally distinct patterns of glial activation that result in elevated nitrosative stress in distinct populations of basal ganglia neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Moreno
- Center for Environmental Medicine, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
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