Triphasic multinutrient supplementation during acute resistance exercise improves session volume load and reduces muscle damage in strength-trained athletes

Psychological effect of acute creatine pre-workout supplementation induces performance improvement in resistance exercise

The purpose of this study was to test whether believed versus actual acute creatine ingestion impacted resistance exercise performance. Fifteen men (21.9 ± 2.7 years old) completed four bouts of three sets each of squat and bench press to volitional fatigue at a 10RM load with 1-min between-sets rest interval. Thirty minutes prior to each exercise bout, they received the following treatments in a randomized order: 1) nothing (CON); 2) 0.3 g·kg-1 dextrose placebo (PLC); 3) 0.3 g·kg-1 dextrose, identified as creatine (Cr-False); 4) 0.3 g·kg 20 -1 creatine, identified as creatine (CrTrue). Between-treatments comparisons included the total repetitions completed and the rate of perceived exertion. Results revealed (p < 0.05) higher repetitions performed for all treatments versus CON for both squat and bench press. In the squat, more repetitions were performed with Cr-True (p < 0.001) and CrFalse (p < 0.001) than with either CON or PLC. Bayes Factor analyses revealed strong (PLC to Cr-True BF = 19.1) and very strong (PLC to CrFalse BF = 45.3) posterior probability favouring positive effects for both "creatine" conditions over PLC for the squat. In conclusion, in acute measures, belief versus ingestion of creatine yields similar exercise performance.

The impact of dietary protein supplementation on recovery from resistance exercise-induced muscle damage: A systematic review with meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

It is unknown whether dietary protein consumption can attenuate resistance exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Managing EIMD may accelerate muscle recovery and allow frequent, high-quality exercise to promote muscle adaptations. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the impact of peri-exercise protein supplementation on resistance EIMD.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted on PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science up to March 2021 for relevant articles. PEDro criteria were used to assess bias within included studies. A Hedges' g effect size (ES) was calculated for indirect markers of EIMD at  h post-exercise. Weighted ESs were included in a random effects model to determine overall ESs over time.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies were included in the systematic review and 40 trials were included in ≥1 meta-analyses (16 total). There were significant overall effects of protein for preserving isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) at 96 h (0.563 [0.232, 0.894]) and isokinetic MVC at 24 h (0.639 [0.116, 1.162]), 48 h (0.447 [0.104, 0.790]), and 72 h (0.569 [0.136, 1.002]). Overall ESs were large in favour of protein for attenuating creatine kinase concentration at 48 h (0.836 [-0.001, 1.673]) and 72 h (1.335 [0.294, 2.376]). Protein supplementation had no effect on muscle soreness compared with the control.

CONCLUSION

Peri-exercise protein consumption could help maintain maximal strength and lower creatine kinase concentration following resistance exercise but not reduce muscle soreness. Conflicting data may be due to methodological divergencies between studies. Standardised methods and data reporting for EIMD research are needed.

Strength and Power Performance Changes During an In-Season Resistance Training Program in Elite Futsal Players: A Case Study

In this study, we aimed to analyze (i) the strength and power changes after resistance training (RT) in elite futsal players, and (ii) the associations between the session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE) and perceived total quality recovery (TQR), and the sRPE and TQR with the volume load of the RT program. Ten elite futsal players (24.8 ± 5.4 years; 76.2 ± 7.1 kg; 1.77 ± 0.05 m) performed an in-season 8-week RT program twice per week. RT consisted of 2-3 sets x 3-6 reps at 45-65% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) with maximal velocities in the full squat and complementary exercises with the same volume. We assessed the TQR before every session, while the sRPE was calculated after each RT session. One week before and after the intervention, we measured the countermovement jump (CMJ) height, isometric hip adduction strength (IHAS), 1RM, and peak power (PP) in the full squat progressive loading test. After the 8-week training program, there was a significant improvement in most outcomes, yet the gains (%Δ) remained below the minimal detectable change (MDC), except for IHAS (CMJ: p < 0.05, %Δ = 6.7, MDC% = 7.2; IHAS: p < 0.001, %Δ = 19.1, MDC% = 14.6; 1RM: p > 0.05, %Δ = 9.2, MDC% = 21.5; PP: p < 0.05; %Δ = 14.4, MDC% = 22.4). We also found a significant negative correlation between TQR and the sRPE (r = -0.45, p < 0.001). Our data suggest that RT based on low-volume and low-to-moderate loads may not produce a sufficient stimulus to induce meaningful dynamic strength and power gains in elite futsal players, although it improves isometric strength. Furthermore, monitoring TQR before sessions may show coaches how the elite futsal player will perceive the session's intensity.

The Ergogenic Effects of Acute Carbohydrate Feeding on Resistance Exercise Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion has an ergogenic effect on endurance training performance. Less is known about the effect of acute CHO ingestion on resistance training (RT) performance and equivocal results are reported in the literature.

OBJECTIVE

The current systematic review and meta-analysis sought to determine if and to what degree CHO ingestion influences RT performance.

METHODS

PubMed, MEDLINE, SportDiscus, Scopus, and CINAHL databases were searched for peer-reviewed articles written in English that used a cross-over design to assess the acute effect of CHO ingestion on RT performance outcomes (e.g., muscle strength, power, and endurance) in healthy human participants compared to a placebo or water-only conditions. The Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool and GRADE approaches were used to assess risk of bias and certainty of evidence, respectively. Random effects meta-analyses were performed for total training session volume and post-exercise blood lactate and glucose. Sub-group meta-analysis and meta-regression were performed for categorical (session and fast durations) and continuous (total number of maximal effort sets, load used, and CHO dose) covariates, respectively.

RESULTS

Twenty-one studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 226 participants). Pooled results revealed a significant benefit of CHO ingestion in comparison to a placebo or control for total session training volume (standardised mean difference [SMD] = 0.61). Sub-group analysis revealed a significant benefit of CHO ingestion during sessions longer than 45 min (SMD = 1.02) and after a fast duration of 8 h or longer (SMD = 0.39). Pooled results revealed elevated post-exercise blood lactate (SMD = 0.58) and blood glucose (SMD = 2.36) with CHO ingestion. Meta-regression indicated that the number of maximal effort sets, but not CHO dose or load used, moderates the effect of CHO ingestion on RT performance (beta co-efficient [b] = 0.11). Carbohydrate dose does not moderate post-exercise lactate accumulation nor do maximal effort sets completed, load used, and CHO dose moderate the effect of CHO ingestion on post-exercise blood glucose.

CONCLUSIONS

Carbohydrate ingestion has an ergogenic effect on RT performance by enhancing volume performance, which is more likely to occur when sessions exceed 45 min and where the fast duration is ≥ 8 h. Further, the effect is moderated by the number of maximal effort sets completed, but not the load used or CHO dose. Post-exercise blood lactate is elevated following CHO ingestion but may come at the expense of an extended time-course of recovery due to the additional training volume performed. Post-exercise blood glucose is elevated when CHO is ingested during RT, but it is presently unclear if it has an impact on RT performance.

PROTOCOL REGISTRATION

The original protocol was prospectively registered on the Open Science Framework (Project identifier: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/HJFBW ).

The effects of acute consumption of carbohydrate-protein supplement in varied ratios on CrossFit athletes' performance in two CrossFit exercises: a randomized cross-over trial

BACKGROUND

CrossFit is becoming popular over the past few years, and various supplementation ways have been utilized by exercise physiologists to enhance CrossFit athletes' performance. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of consuming preworkout carbohydrate-protein supplements on CrossFit athletes' performance.

METHODS

Well-trained CrossFit athletes (8 men; 25.62±3.02 years) were randomized to a single-blind, placebo controlled, crossover design (7-day washout) to performed six bouts of two CrossFit workouts: Fight Gone Bad (FGB) and Cindy (CI). One hour and immediately before the onset of each bout, the subjects consumed carbohydrate-protein supplement in two ratios (2:2 or 3:1) or placebo (P): FGB+2:2, FGB+3:1, FGB+P, CI+2:2, CI+3:1, and CI+P. To value the differentiation in performances, the performed each subject repetitions in FGB and CI were recorded in the bouts.

RESULTS

Repeated measure analysis of variance was used to analyze the data, and the level of significance set for the study was P≤0.05. No significant difference was observed in the total number of repetitions performed in FGB (P=0.275) or CI (P=0.789) workouts in supplements and placebo groups.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that acute consumption of preworkout carbohydrate-protein supplement may not enhance the CrossFit athletes' performance in FGB and CI workouts.

Training Considerations for Optimising Endurance Development: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective

Whilst the "acute hypothesis" was originally coined to describe the detrimental effects of concurrent training on strength development, similar physiological processes may occur when endurance training adaptations are compromised. There is a growing body of research indicating that typical resistance exercises impair neuromuscular function and endurance performance during periods of resistance training-induced muscle damage. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that the attenuating effects of resistance training-induced muscle damage on endurance performance are influenced by exercise intensity, exercise mode, exercise sequence, recovery and contraction velocity of resistance training. By understanding the influence that training variables have on the level of resistance training-induced muscle damage and its subsequent attenuating effects on endurance performance, concurrent training programs could be prescribed in such a way that minimises fatigue between modes of training and optimises the quality of endurance training sessions. Therefore, this review will provide considerations for concurrent training prescription for endurance development based on scientific evidence. Furthermore, recommendations will be provided for future research by identifying training variables that may impact on endurance development as a result of concurrent training.

Implications of Impaired Endurance Performance following Single Bouts of Resistance Training: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective

A single bout of resistance training induces residual fatigue, which may impair performance during subsequent endurance training if inadequate recovery is allowed. From a concurrent training standpoint, such carry-over effects of fatigue from a resistance training session may impair the quality of a subsequent endurance training session for several hours to days with inadequate recovery. The proposed mechanisms of this phenomenon include: (1) impaired neural recruitment patterns; (2) reduced movement efficiency due to alteration in kinematics during endurance exercise and increased energy expenditure; (3) increased muscle soreness; and (4) reduced muscle glycogen. If endurance training quality is consistently compromised during the course of a specific concurrent training program, optimal endurance development may be limited. Whilst the link between acute responses of training and subsequent training adaptation has not been fully established, there is some evidence suggesting that cumulative effects of fatigue may contribute to limiting optimal endurance development. Thus, the current review will (1) explore cross-sectional studies that have reported impaired endurance performance following a single, or multiple bouts, of resistance training; (2) identify the potential impact of fatigue on chronic endurance development; (3) describe the implications of fatigue on the quality of endurance training sessions during concurrent training, and (4) explain the mechanisms contributing to resistance training-induced attenuation on endurance performance from neurological, biomechanical and metabolic standpoints. Increasing the awareness of resistance training-induced fatigue may encourage coaches to consider modulating concurrent training variables (e.g., order of training mode, between-mode recovery period, training intensity, etc.) to limit the carry-over effects of fatigue from resistance to endurance training sessions.

Effects of carbohydrate and branched-chain amino acid beverage ingestion during acute upper body resistance exercise on performance and postexercise hormone response

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the individual and combined effects of ingesting carbohydrates (CHO) and branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) during high-volume upper body resistance exercise (RE) on markers of catabolism and performance. Thirteen resistance-trained males completed 4 experimental trials with supplementation, ingesting beverages containing CHO, BCAA, CHO+BCAA, or placebo (PLA) in a randomized, double-blind design. The beverages were ingested in 118-mL servings 6 times during an ∼60-min RE session consisting of bench press, bent-over row, incline press, and close-grip row. Each RE was performed with 5 sets of repetitions at 65% 1-repetition maximum until volitional fatigue. Blood samples were collected at baseline, immediately postexercise, and 60 min postexercise to assess glucose and insulin. Cortisol was assessed immediately and at 60 min postexercise. No significant performance benefits were observed for any RE. CHO+BCAA (152.4 ± 71.4 ng/mL) resulted in the lowest cortisol levels, which was lower than BCAA and PLA (193.7 ± 88.5, 182.8 ± 67.5 ng/mL, p < 0.05), but not different from CHO (165 ± 76.5 ng/mL, p = 0.342). Postexercise insulin concentrations were significantly higher with CHO (4.79 ± 3.4 mU/L) compared with BCAA and PLA (3.7 ± 2.0, 3.5 ± 1.8 mU/L, p < 0.05), but not different from CHO+BCAA (4.3 ± 2.5 mU/L, p = 0.339). There was no treatment effect for glucose, but glucose significantly increased from baseline to immediately postexercise and significantly decreased at 60 min postexercise. Ingesting beverages containing CHO with or without BCAA during upper body resistance exercise may promote a more favorable postexercise less catabolic environment.

International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutrient timing

The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) provides an objective and critical review regarding the timing of macronutrients in reference to healthy, exercising adults and in particular highly trained individuals on exercise performance and body composition. The following points summarize the position of the ISSN:

Nutrient timing incorporates the use of methodical planning and eating of whole foods, fortified foods and dietary supplements. The timing of energy intake and the ratio of certain ingested macronutrients may enhance recovery and tissue repair, augment muscle protein synthesis (MPS), and improve mood states following high-volume or intense exercise.

Endogenous glycogen stores are maximized by following a high-carbohydrate diet (8–12 g of carbohydrate/kg/day [g/kg/day]); moreover, these stores are depleted most by high volume exercise.

If rapid restoration of glycogen is required (< 4 h of recovery time) then the following strategies should be considered:

aggressive carbohydrate refeeding (1.2 g/kg/h) with a preference towards carbohydrate sources that have a high (> 70) glycemic index

the addition of caffeine (3–8 mg/kg)

combining carbohydrates (0.8 g/kg/h) with protein (0.2–0.4 g/kg/h)

Extended (> 60 min) bouts of high intensity (> 70% VO₂max) exercise challenge fuel supply and fluid regulation, thus carbohydrate should be consumed at a rate of ~30–60 g of carbohydrate/h in a 6–8% carbohydrate-electrolyte solution (6–12 fluid ounces) every 10–15 min throughout the entire exercise bout, particularly in those exercise bouts that span beyond 70 min. When carbohydrate delivery is inadequate, adding protein may help increase performance, ameliorate muscle damage, promote euglycemia and facilitate glycogen re-synthesis.

Carbohydrate ingestion throughout resistance exercise (e.g., 3–6 sets of 8–12 repetition maximum [RM] using multiple exercises targeting all major muscle groups) has been shown to promote euglycemia and higher glycogen stores. Consuming carbohydrate solely or in combination with protein during resistance exercise increases muscle glycogen stores, ameliorates muscle damage, and facilitates greater acute and chronic training adaptations.

Meeting the total daily intake of protein, preferably with evenly spaced protein feedings (approximately every 3 h during the day), should be viewed as a primary area of emphasis for exercising individuals.

Ingestion of essential amino acids (EAA; approximately 10 g)either in free form or as part of a protein bolus of approximately 20–40 g has been shown to maximally stimulate muscle protein synthesis (MPS).

Pre- and/or post-exercise nutritional interventions (carbohydrate + protein or protein alone) may operate as an effective strategy to support increases in strength and improvements in body composition. However, the size and timing of a pre-exercise meal may impact the extent to which post-exercise protein feeding is required.

Post-exercise ingestion (immediately to 2-h post) of high-quality protein sources stimulates robust increases in MPS.

In non-exercising scenarios, changing the frequency of meals has shown limited impact on weight loss and body composition, with stronger evidence to indicate meal frequency can favorably improve appetite and satiety. More research is needed to determine the influence of combining an exercise program with altered meal frequencies on weight loss and body composition with preliminary research indicating a potential benefit.

Ingesting a 20–40 g protein dose (0.25–0.40 g/kg body mass/dose) of a high-quality source every three to 4 h appears to most favorably affect MPS rates when compared to other dietary patterns and is associated with improved body composition and performance outcomes.

Consuming casein protein (~ 30–40 g) prior to sleep can acutely increase MPS and metabolic rate throughout the night without influencing lipolysis.

Late-Pregnancy Salivary Cortisol Concentrations of Ghanaian Women Participating in a Randomized Controlled Trial of Prenatal Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplements

BACKGROUND

High circulating cortisol is associated with miscarriage, preterm birth, and low birth weight. Research in nonpregnant individuals suggests that improved nutrition may lower cortisol concentrations. It is unknown whether nutritional supplementation during pregnancy lowers cortisol.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to determine whether women receiving a lipid-based nutrient supplement (LNS) throughout pregnancy would have lower salivary cortisol at 36 wk gestation compared with women receiving other nutrient supplements.

METHODS

We conducted a randomized controlled trial in 1320 pregnant Ghanaian women at ≤20 wk gestation who were assigned to receive daily throughout pregnancy: 1) 60 mg iron + 400 μg folic acid (IFA), 2) multiple micronutrients (MMNs), or 3) 20 g LNS (containing 118 kcal, 22 micronutrients, and protein). Morning salivary cortisol was collected from a subsample at baseline and at 28 and 36 wk gestation.

RESULTS

A total of 758 women had cortisol measurements at 28 or 36 wk gestation. Salivary cortisol at 36 wk gestation did not differ between groups and was (mean ± SE) 7.97 ± 0.199 in the IFA group, 7.84 ± 0.191 in the MMN group, and 7.77 ± 0.199 nmol/L in the LNS group, when adjusted for baseline cortisol, time of waking, and time between waking and saliva collection (P = 0.67). There was an interaction between supplementation group and women's age (continuous variable, P-interaction = 0.03); and when age was dichotomized by the median, significant differences in salivary cortisol concentrations between groups were seen in women ≤26 y of age (IFA = 8.23 ± 0.284 nmol/L, MMN = 8.20 ± 0.274 nmol/L, and LNS = 7.44 ± 0.284 nmol/L; P = 0.03) but not in women >26 y old (IFA = 7.71 ± 0.281 nmol/L, MMN = 7.50 ± 0.274 nmol/L, and LNS = 8.08 ± 0.281 nmol/L; P = 0.13).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that supplementation with LNSs or MMNs during pregnancy did not affect the cortisol concentration in the study population as a whole, in comparison with IFA, but that LNS consumption among younger women may lead to lower cortisol at 36 wk gestation. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00970866.