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Kim AS, Lee JM. The limited role of serum neurofilament light chain in predicting pain severity of patients with diabetic polyneuropathy. Sci Rep 2024; 14:15612. [PMID: 38971890 PMCID: PMC11227535 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-66444-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Pain is one of many complaints expressed by patients with diabetic polyneuropathy. However, no objective measure for pain severity has been available. Neurofilament light chains have been widely used for assessing axonal damage in the neuronal system. Hence, we sought to investigate whether neurofilament light chains can serve as a marker reflecting pain severity in diabetic polyneuropathy. We enrolled the patients with diabetic polyneuropathy. Serum concentrations of neurofilament light chain were then measured using a single-molecule array. Pain severity was evaluated using painDETECT and the Brief Pain Inventory. Moreover, laboratory results including, serum creatinine, HbA1c, and glomerular filtration rate. A correlation test was used to analyze each variable. A total of 42 patients were enrolled. Neurofilament light chain levels were unable to reflect current neuropathic pain severity. However, high levels of neurofilament light chain were a significant predictor of poor diabetes control (r = 0.41; p = 0.02) and kidney damage (r = 0.45; p = 0.01). Serum levels of neurofilament light chain could not reflect current pain severity but was strongly associated with kidney dysfunction and poor diabetes control. Other biomarkers that could predict pain severity need to be uncovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- A-Sol Kim
- Department of Family Medicine, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Kyungpook National University Chilgok Hospital, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Jong-Mok Lee
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Kyungpook National University Hospital, 680 Gukchaebosang-ro, Jung-gu, Daegu, 41944, South Korea.
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2
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Bayoumy S, Verberk IMW, Vermunt L, Willemse E, den Dulk B, van der Ploeg AT, Pajkrt D, Nitz E, van den Hout JMP, van der Post J, Wolf NI, Beerepoot S, Groen EJN, Tüngler V, Teunissen CE. Neurofilament light protein as a biomarker for spinal muscular atrophy: a review and reference ranges. Clin Chem Lab Med 2024; 62:1252-1265. [PMID: 38215341 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2023-1311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is the leading genetic cause of infant mortality, characterized by progressive neuromuscular degeneration resulting from mutations in the survival motor neuron (SMN1) gene. The availability of disease-modifying therapies for SMA therapies highlights the pressing need for easily accessible and cost-effective blood biomarkers to monitor treatment response and for better disease management. Additionally, the wide implementation of newborn genetic screening programs in Western countries enables presymptomatic diagnosis of SMA and immediate treatment administration. However, the absence of monitoring and prognostic blood biomarkers for neurodegeneration in SMA hinders effective disease management. Neurofilament light protein (NfL) is a promising biomarker of neuroaxonal damage in SMA and reflects disease progression in children with SMA undergoing treatment. Recently, the European Medicines Agency issued a letter of support endorsing the potential utilization of NfL as a biomarker of pediatric neurological diseases, including SMA. Within this review, we comprehensively assess the potential applications of NfL as a monitoring biomarker for disease severity and treatment response in pediatric-onset SMA. We provide reference ranges for normal levels of serum based NfL in neurologically healthy children aged 0-18 years. These reference ranges enable accurate interpretation of NfL levels in children and can accelerate the implementation of NfL into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Bayoumy
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Inge M W Verberk
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lisa Vermunt
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eline Willemse
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ben den Dulk
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ans T van der Ploeg
- Center for Lysosomal and Metabolic Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dasja Pajkrt
- Organovir Labs, Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elisa Nitz
- Department of Neuropediatrics, Medizinische Fakultät, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Johanna M P van den Hout
- Center for Lysosomal and Metabolic Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Julie van der Post
- Organovir Labs, Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Amsterdam University Medical Centers Location Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole I Wolf
- Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Department of Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, VU University Amsterdam, and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Cellular & Molecular Mechanisms, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Shanice Beerepoot
- Amsterdam Leukodystrophy Center, Department of Child Neurology, Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, VU University Amsterdam, and Amsterdam Neuroscience, Cellular & Molecular Mechanisms, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ewout J N Groen
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Victoria Tüngler
- Department of Neuropediatrics, Medizinische Fakultät, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- University Center for Rare Diseases, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Yeo CJJ, Tizzano EF, Darras BT. Challenges and opportunities in spinal muscular atrophy therapeutics. Lancet Neurol 2024; 23:205-218. [PMID: 38267192 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(23)00419-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy was the most common inherited cause of infant death until 2016, when three therapies became available: the antisense oligonucleotide nusinersen, gene replacement therapy with onasemnogene abeparvovec, and the small-molecule splicing modifier risdiplam. These drugs compensate for deficient survival motor neuron protein and have improved lifespan and quality of life in infants and children with spinal muscular atrophy. Given the lifelong implications of these innovative therapies, ways to detect and manage treatment-modified disease characteristics are needed. All three drugs are more effective when given before development of symptoms, or as early as possible in individuals who have already developed symptoms. Early subtle symptoms might be missed, and disease onset might occur in utero in severe spinal muscular atrophy subtypes; in some countries, newborn screening is allowing diagnosis soon after birth and early treatment. Adults with spinal muscular atrophy report stabilisation of disease and less fatigue with treatment. These subjective benefits need to be weighed against the high costs of the drugs to patients and health-care systems. Clinical consensus is required on therapeutic windows and on outcome measures and biomarkers that can be used to monitor drug benefit, toxicity, and treatment-modified disease characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal J J Yeo
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore; National Neuroscience Institute, Tan Tock Seng and Singapore General Hospital, Singapore; Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Eduardo F Tizzano
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Genetics, Vall d'Hebron University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; Genetics Medicine, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Basil T Darras
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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4
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Abiusi E, Costa-Roger M, Bertini ES, Tiziano FD, Tizzano EF, Abiusi E, Baranello G, Bertini E, Boemer F, Burghes A, Codina-Solà M, Costa-Roger M, Dangouloff T, Groen E, Gos M, Jędrzejowska M, Kirschner J, Lemmink HH, Müller-Felber W, Ouillade MC, Quijano-Roy S, Rucinski K, Saugier-Veber P, Tiziano FD, Tizzano EF, Wirth B. 270th ENMC International Workshop: Consensus for SMN2 genetic analysis in SMA patients 10-12 March, 2023, Hoofddorp, the Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord 2024; 34:114-122. [PMID: 38183850 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2023.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
The 270th ENMC workshop aimed to develop a common procedure to optimize the reliability of SMN2 gene copy number determination and to reinforce collaborative networks between molecular scientists and clinicians. The workshop involved neuromuscular and clinical experts and representatives of patient advocacy groups and industry. SMN2 copy number is currently one of the main determinants for therapeutic decision in SMA patients: participants discussed the issues that laboratories may encounter in this molecular test and the cruciality of the accurate determination, due the implications as prognostic factor in symptomatic patients and in individuals identified through newborn screening programmes. At the end of the workshop, the attendees defined a set of recommendations divided into four topics: SMA molecular prognosis assessment, newborn screening for SMA, SMN2 copies and treatments, and modifiers and biomarkers. Moreover, the group draw up a series of recommendations for the companies manufacturing laboratory kits, that will help to minimize the risk of errors, regardless of the laboratories' expertise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Abiusi
- Section of Genomic Medicine, Department of Public Health and Life Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Mar Costa-Roger
- Clinical and Molecular Genetics Area, Vall d'Hebron Hospital; Medicine Genetics Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enrico Silvio Bertini
- Research Unit of Neuromuscular Disease, Bambino Gesu’ Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Francesco Danilo Tiziano
- Section of Genomic Medicine, Department of Public Health and Life Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
- Complex Unit of Medical Genetics, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario IRCCS “A. Gemelli”, Roma, Italy
| | - Eduardo F Tizzano
- Clinical and Molecular Genetics Area, Vall d'Hebron Hospital; Medicine Genetics Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Emanuela Abiusi
- Section of Genomic Medicine, Dept. of Life Sciences and Public Health, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Baranello
- The Dubowitz Neuromuscular Centre, Developmental Neuroscience Research and Teaching Department, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, NIHR Great Ormond Street Hospital Biomedical Research Centre & Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 30 Guilford Street, London WC1N 1EH, UK
| | - Enrico Bertini
- Italy, Research Unit of Neuromuscular Disease, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - François Boemer
- Biochemical Genetics Lab, Department of Human Genetics, University Hospital, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Arthur Burghes
- Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Marta Codina-Solà
- Neuromuscular Reference Center, Department of Paediatrics, University Hospital Liege & University of Liege, Belgium
| | - Mar Costa-Roger
- Department of Neurology & Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Tamara Dangouloff
- Department of Medical Genetics, Institute of Mother and Child, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewout Groen
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Gos
- Department of Neuropediatrics and Muscle Disorders, Medical Center University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maria Jędrzejowska
- Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Janbernd Kirschner
- Centre for Neuromuscular Disorders, Center for Translational Neuro and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Pediatric Neurology, University Duisburg-Essen, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Henny H Lemmink
- AFM Téléthon, Évry, France; SMA Europe; European Alliance for Newborn Screening in Spinal Muscular Atrophy
| | - Wolfgang Müller-Felber
- Pediatric Neuromuscular Unit (NEIDF Reference Center at FILNEMUS & Euro-NMD), Child Neurology Department, Raymond Poincaré Hospital (UVSQ), APHP Université Paris Saclay, Garches France
| | - Marie-Christine Ouillade
- Fundacja SMA, Warsaw, Poland; SMA Europe; European Alliance for Newborn Screening in Spinal Muscular Atrophy
| | - Susana Quijano-Roy
- Univ Rouen Normandie, Inserm U1245, Normandie Univ and CHU Rouen, Department of Genetics and Nord/Est/Ile de France Neuromuscular Reference Center, F-76000 Rouen, France
| | - Kacper Rucinski
- Institute of Medical Genomics, Dept. of Life Sciences and Public Health, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, and Complex Unit of Medical Genetics, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario IRCCS “A. Gemelli”, Roma, Italy
| | - Pascale Saugier-Veber
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, Center for Molecular Medicine, University of Cologne and Center for Rare Diseases Cologne, University Hopsital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Francesco Danilo Tiziano
- Institute of Medical Genomics, Dept. of Life Sciences and Public Health, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, and Complex Unit of Medical Genetics, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario IRCCS “A. Gemelli”, Roma, Italy
| | - Eduardo Fidel Tizzano
- Clinical and Molecular Genetics Area, Vall d'Hebron Hospital; Medicine Genetics Group, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Brunhilde Wirth
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, Center for Molecular Medicine, University of Cologne and Center for Rare Diseases Cologne, University Hopsital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Flotats-Bastardas M, Bitzan L, Grell C, Martakis K, Winter B, Zemlin M, Wurster CD, Uzelac Z, Weiß C, Hahn A. Paradoxical increase of neurofilaments in SMA patients treated with onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1269406. [PMID: 38162454 PMCID: PMC10756901 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1269406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Background/Objective Neurofilament light chain (NfL) has been proposed as a biomarker reflecting disease severity and therapy response in children with spinal muscular atrophy type 1 and 2 (SMA1 and 2). The objective of this study was to examine how serum NfL changes after gene replacement therapy (GRT) with onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi. Methods We measured NfL in serum probes from 19 patients (10 SMA 1 and 6 SMA 2; 15 previously treated with nusinersen or risdiplam; 12 male) before and at variable time points after GRT. These values were related to motor scores (CHOP-Intend, HFMSE and RULM). Results Median age at GRT was 19 months (range 2-46 months). Median NfL of all patients before GRT was 39 pg/ml (range 0-663 pg/ml; normal values <25 pg/ml), increased significantly to 297 pg/ml (range 61-1,696 pg/ml; p<0,002) 1 month after GRT, and decreased to 49 pg/ml (range 24-151 pg/ml) after 6 months. Subjects pre-treated with nusinersen or risdiplam had lower baseline NfL levels than naïve patients (p<0,005), but absolute increases of NfL were similar in both groups. While motor scores were improved in 14 out of 18 SMA patients (78%) 6 months after GRT NfL values differed not significantly from those measured at baseline (p = 0,959). Conclusion Serum NfL showed a paradoxical transient increase after GRT in both, pre-treated and naïve patients, which may reflect an immunological reaction in the CNS related to transfection of neuronal cells by AAV9. The clinical meaning of this increase should be assessed in future studies. Our findings encourage regular monitoring of NfL in OA treated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Flotats-Bastardas
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Saarland University Medical Center, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Bitzan
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Charlotte Grell
- Department of Child Neurology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Kyriakos Martakis
- Department of Child Neurology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Benedikt Winter
- Department of Child Neurology, Mannheim University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Michael Zemlin
- Department of General Pediatrics and Neonatology, Saarland University Medical Center, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | | | - Zeljko Uzelac
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Claudia Weiß
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Hahn
- Department of Child Neurology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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6
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Giorgia Q, Gomez Garcia de la Banda M, Smeriglio P. Role of circulating biomarkers in spinal muscular atrophy: insights from a new treatment era. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1226969. [PMID: 38020652 PMCID: PMC10679720 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1226969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a lower motor neuron disease due to biallelic mutations in the SMN1 gene on chromosome 5. It is characterized by progressive muscle weakness of limbs, bulbar and respiratory muscles. The disease is usually classified in four different phenotypes (1-4) according to age at symptoms onset and maximal motor milestones achieved. Recently, three disease modifying treatments have received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA), while several other innovative drugs are under study. New therapies have been game changing, improving survival and life quality for SMA patients. However, they have also intensified the need for accurate biomarkers to monitor disease progression and treatment efficacy. While clinical and neurophysiological biomarkers are well established and helpful in describing disease progression, there is a great need to develop more robust and sensitive circulating biomarkers, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and other small molecules. Used alone or in combination with clinical biomarkers, they will play a critical role in enhancing patients' stratification for clinical trials and access to approved treatments, as well as in tracking response to therapy, paving the way to the development of individualized therapeutic approaches. In this comprehensive review, we describe the foremost circulating biomarkers of current significance, analyzing existing literature on non-treated and treated patients with a special focus on neurofilaments and circulating miRNA, aiming to identify and examine their role in the follow-up of patients treated with innovative treatments, including gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Querin Giorgia
- APHP, Service de Neuromyologie, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Centre Référent pour les Maladies Neuromusculaires Nord/Est/Ile de France, Paris, France
- Institut de Myologie, I-Motion Clinical Trials Platform, Paris, France
- European Reference Center Network (Euro-NMD ERN), Paris, France
| | - Marta Gomez Garcia de la Banda
- Institut de Myologie, I-Motion Clinical Trials Platform, Paris, France
- APHP, Pediatric Neurology Department, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, Centre Référent pour les Maladies Neuromusculaires Nord/Est/Ile de France, Paris, France
- APHP, Pediatric Neurology and ICU Department, Université Paris Saclay, DMU Santé de l'Enfant et de l'Adolescent, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, Garches, France
| | - Piera Smeriglio
- Centre of Research in Myology, Institute of Myology, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Paris, France
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Balaji L, Farrar MA, D'Silva AM, Kariyawasam DS. Decision-making and challenges within the evolving treatment algorithm in spinal muscular atrophy: a clinical perspective. Expert Rev Neurother 2023; 23:571-586. [PMID: 37227306 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2023.2218549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The clinical application of disease modifying therapies has dramatically changed the paradigm of the management of people with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), from sole reliance on symptomatic care directed toward the downstream consequences of muscle weakness, to proactive intervention and even preventative care. AREAS COVERED In this perspective, the authors evaluate the contemporary therapeutic landscape of SMA and discuss the evolution of novel phenotypes and the treatment algorithm, including the key factors that define individual treatment choice and treatment response. The benefits achieved by early diagnosis and treatment through newborn screening are highlighted, alongside an appraisal of emerging prognostic methods and classification frameworks to inform clinicians, patients, and families about disease course, manage expectations, and improve care planning. A future perspective of unmet needs and challenges is provided, emphasizing the key role of research. EXPERT OPINION SMN-augmenting therapies have improved health outcomes for people with SMA and powered the practice of personalized medicine. Within this new proactive diagnostic and treatment paradigm, new phenotypes and different disease trajectories are emerging. Ongoing collaborative research efforts to understand the biology of SMA and define optimal response are critical to refining future approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Balaji
- Department of Neurology, Sydney Children's Hospital Network, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Medicine and Health UNSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michelle A Farrar
- Department of Neurology, Sydney Children's Hospital Network, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Medicine and Health UNSW, Sydney, Australia
- UNSW Kensington Campus, Sydney, Australia
| | - Arlene M D'Silva
- Department of Neurology, Sydney Children's Hospital Network, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Medicine and Health UNSW, Sydney, Australia
- UNSW Kensington Campus, Sydney, Australia
| | - Didu S Kariyawasam
- Department of Neurology, Sydney Children's Hospital Network, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, School of Clinical Medicine, UNSW Medicine and Health UNSW, Sydney, Australia
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McCluskey G, Morrison KE, Donaghy C, McConville J, McCarron MO, McVerry F, Duddy W, Duguez S. Serum Neurofilaments in Motor Neuron Disease and Their Utility in Differentiating ALS, PMA and PLS. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1301. [PMID: 37374084 DOI: 10.3390/life13061301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurofilament levels are elevated in many neurodegenerative diseases and have shown promise as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), the most common form of Motor Neuron Disease (MND). This study assesses serum neurofilament light (NFL) and neurofilament heavy (NFH) chain concentrations in patients with ALS, other variants of motor neuron disease such as Progressive Muscular Atrophy (PMA) and Primary Lateral Sclerosis (PLS), and a range of other neurological diseases. It aims to evaluate the use of NFL and NFH to differentiate these conditions and for the prognosis of MND disease progression. NFL and NFH levels were quantified using electrochemiluminescence immunoassays (ECLIA). Both were elevated in 47 patients with MND compared to 34 patients with other neurological diseases and 33 healthy controls. NFL was able to differentiate patients with MND from the other groups with a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve area under the curve (AUC) of 0.90 (p < 0.001). NFL correlated with the rate of disease progression in MND (rho 0.758, p < 0.001) and with the ALS Functional Rating Scale (rho -0.335, p = 0.021). NFL levels were higher in patients with ALS compared to both PMA (p = 0.032) and PLS (p = 0.012) and were able to distinguish ALS from both PMA and PLS with a ROC curve AUC of 0.767 (p = 0.005). These findings support the use of serum NFL to help diagnose and differentiate types of MND, in addition to providing prognostic information to patients and their families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin McCluskey
- Personalised Medicine Centre, School of Medicine, Ulster University, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
- Department of Neurology, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast BT12 6BA, UK
- Department of Neurology, Altnagelvin Hospital, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - Karen E Morrison
- Department of Neurology, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast BT12 6BA, UK
- Faculty of Medicine, Health & Life Sciences, Queen's University, Belfast BT9 6AG, UK
| | - Colette Donaghy
- Department of Neurology, Altnagelvin Hospital, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - John McConville
- Department of Neurology, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast BT12 6BA, UK
- Department of Neurology, Ulster Hospital, Belfast BT16 1RH, UK
| | - Mark O McCarron
- Department of Neurology, Altnagelvin Hospital, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - Ferghal McVerry
- Department of Neurology, Altnagelvin Hospital, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - William Duddy
- Personalised Medicine Centre, School of Medicine, Ulster University, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
| | - Stephanie Duguez
- Personalised Medicine Centre, School of Medicine, Ulster University, Derry BT47 6SB, UK
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9
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Glascock J, Darras BT, Crawford TO, Sumner CJ, Kolb SJ, DiDonato C, Elsheikh B, Howell K, Farwell W, Valente M, Petrillo M, Tingey J, Jarecki J. Identifying Biomarkers of Spinal Muscular Atrophy for Further Development. J Neuromuscul Dis 2023; 10:937-954. [PMID: 37458045 PMCID: PMC10578234 DOI: 10.3233/jnd-230054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by bi-allelic, recessive mutations of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene and reduced expression levels of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. Degeneration of alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord causes progressive skeletal muscle weakness. The wide range of disease severities, variable rates of decline, and heterogenous clinical responses to approved disease-modifying treatment remain poorly understood and limit the ability to optimize treatment for patients. Validation of a reliable biomarker(s) with the potential to support early diagnosis, inform disease prognosis and therapeutic suitability, and/or confirm response to treatment(s) represents a significant unmet need in SMA. OBJECTIVES The SMA Multidisciplinary Biomarkers Working Group, comprising 11 experts in a variety of relevant fields, sought to determine the most promising candidate biomarker currently available, determine key knowledge gaps, and recommend next steps toward validating that biomarker for SMA. METHODS The Working Group engaged in a modified Delphi process to answer questions about candidate SMA biomarkers. Members participated in six rounds of reiterative surveys that were designed to build upon previous discussions. RESULTS The Working Group reached a consensus that neurofilament (NF) is the candidate biomarker best poised for further development. Several important knowledge gaps were identified, and the next steps toward filling these gaps were proposed. CONCLUSIONS NF is a promising SMA biomarker with the potential for prognostic, predictive, and pharmacodynamic capabilities. The Working Group has identified needed information to continue efforts toward the validation of NF as a biomarker for SMA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Basil T. Darras
- Boston Children’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Thomas O. Crawford
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Charlotte J. Sumner
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, Department of Neurology and Pediatrics, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Stephen J. Kolb
- Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry & Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Bakri Elsheikh
- Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Kelly Howell
- Spinal Muscular Atrophy Foundation, Jackson, WY, USA
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10
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Scheijmans FEV, Cuppen I, Zwartkruis MM, Signoria I, van Ekris C, Asselman F, Wadman RI, Knol EF, van der Pol WL, Groen EJN. Inflammatory markers in cerebrospinal fluid of paediatric spinal muscular atrophy patients receiving nusinersen treatment. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2023; 42:34-41. [PMID: 36525882 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2022.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a progressive motor neuron disease with onset during infancy or early childhood. Recent therapeutic advances targeting the genetic defect that underlies SMA improved survival in patients with infantile onset SMA (type 1) and improved motor function in SMA type 1-3. The most commonly used therapy for SMA, the antisense oligonucleotide nusinersen, is delivered by repeated intrathecal injections. The long-term safety effects of this procedure, however, have not yet been investigated in detail. We here present case reports of three children with SMA in which routine laboratory investigation revealed increased leukocyte counts in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collected during the course of nusinersen treatment. To further characterize this observation, we used a multiplex method to analyse a broad spectrum of inflammatory markers in the CSF of these patients. We found that interleukin-10 (IL10) was consistently elevated in CSF with increased leukocyte counts, but other inflammatory markers were not. Based on this analysis we selected 7 markers for further analysis in a cohort of 38 children with SMA and determined their expression during the course of nusinersen therapy. No consistent association was found between levels of inflammatory markers and the duration of nusinersen therapy in individual patients. However, monocyte chemoactive protein 1 (MCP1/CCL2) -a neuroprotective protein secreted by astrocytes and previously associated with SMA- levels increased over the course of nusinersen treatment, indicating a possible neuroprotective mechanism associated with nusinersen therapy. In summary, our findings confirm that repeated intrathecal injections are safe and do not trigger unwanted immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- F E V Scheijmans
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - I Cuppen
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - M M Zwartkruis
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Genetics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - I Signoria
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - C van Ekris
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - F Asselman
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - R I Wadman
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - E F Knol
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Laboratory of Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - W L van der Pol
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - E J N Groen
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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11
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Johnson EW, Sutherland JJ, Meseck E, McElroy C, Chand DH, Tukov FF, Hudry E, Penraat K. Neurofilament light chain and dorsal root ganglia injury after adeno-associated virus 9 gene therapy in nonhuman primates. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2022; 28:208-219. [PMID: 36700120 PMCID: PMC9852542 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2022.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In nonhuman primates (NHPs), adeno-associated virus serotype 9 (AAV9) vectorized gene therapy can cause asymptomatic microscopic injury to dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and trigeminal ganglia (TG) somatosensory neurons, causing neurofilament light chain (NfL) to diffuse into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood. Data from 260 cynomolgus macaques administered vehicle or AAV9 vectors (intrathecally or intravenously) were analyzed to investigate NfL as a soluble biomarker for monitoring DRG/TG microscopic findings. The incidence of key DRG/TG findings with AAV9 vectors was 78% (maximum histopathology severity, moderate) at 2-12 weeks after the dose. When examined up to 52 weeks after the dose, the incidence was 42% (maximum histopathology severity, minimal). Terminal NfL concentrations in plasma, serum, and CSF correlated with microscopic severity. After 52 weeks, NfL returned to pre-dose baseline concentrations, correlating with microscopic findings of lesser incidence and/or severity compared with interim time points. Blood and CSF NfL concentrations correlated with asymptomatic DRG/TG injury, suggesting that monitoring serum and plasma concentrations is as useful for assessment as more invasive CSF sampling. Longitudinal assessment of NfL concentrations related to microscopic findings associated with AAV9 administration in NHPs indicates NfL could be a useful biomarker in nonclinical toxicity testing. Caution should be applied for any translation to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric W. Johnson
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - Emily Meseck
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, NJ 07936, USA
| | - Cameron McElroy
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, NJ 07936, USA
| | - Deepa H. Chand
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover, NJ 07936, USA,University of Illinois College of Medicine-Peoria, Children’s Hospital of Illinois, Peoria IL 61605, USA
| | | | - Eloise Hudry
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kelley Penraat
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA,Corresponding author: Kelley Penraat, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 250 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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12
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Hansson O, Edelmayer RM, Boxer AL, Carrillo MC, Mielke MM, Rabinovici GD, Salloway S, Sperling R, Zetterberg H, Teunissen CE. The Alzheimer's Association appropriate use recommendations for blood biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2022; 18:2669-2686. [PMID: 35908251 PMCID: PMC10087669 DOI: 10.1002/alz.12756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 98.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Blood-based markers (BBMs) have recently shown promise to revolutionize the diagnostic and prognostic work-up of Alzheimer's disease (AD), as well as to improve the design of interventional trials. Here we discuss in detail further research needed to be performed before widespread use of BBMs. We already now recommend use of BBMs as (pre-)screeners to identify individuals likely to have AD pathological changes for inclusion in trials evaluating disease-modifying therapies, provided the AD status is confirmed with positron emission tomography (PET) or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) testing. We also encourage studying longitudinal BBM changes in ongoing as well as future interventional trials. However, BBMs should not yet be used as primary endpoints in pivotal trials. Further, we recommend to cautiously start using BBMs in specialized memory clinics as part of the diagnostic work-up of patients with cognitive symptoms and the results should be confirmed whenever possible with CSF or PET. Additional data are needed before use of BBMs as stand-alone diagnostic AD markers, or before considering use in primary care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar Hansson
- ClinicalMemory Research UnitDepartment of Clinical Sciences MalmöLund UniversityMalmöSweden
- Memory ClinicSkåne University HospitalMalmöSweden
| | | | - Adam L. Boxer
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California San FranciscoMemory and Aging CenterSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | | | - Michelle M. Mielke
- Department of Epidemiology and PreventionWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Gil D. Rabinovici
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California San FranciscoMemory and Aging CenterSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Stephen Salloway
- Departments of Neurology and PsychiatryAlpert Medical School of Brown UniversityProvidenceRhode IslandUSA
| | - Reisa Sperling
- Centerfor Alzheimer Research and TreatmentBrigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and NeurochemistryInstitute of Neuroscience and PhysiologyThe Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of GothenburgMölndalSweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry LaboratorySahlgrenska University HospitalMölndalSweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative DiseaseUCL Institute of NeurologyQueen SquareLondonUK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCLLondonUK
- Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative DiseasesClear Water BayHong KongPeople's Republic of China
| | - Charlotte E. Teunissen
- NeurochemistryLaboratoryDepartment of Clinical ChemistryAmsterdam University Medical CentersVrije UniversiteitAmsterdam NeuroscienceAmsterdamthe Netherlands
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13
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Fader KA, Pardo ID, Kovi RC, Somps CJ, Wang HH, Vaidya VS, Ramaiah SK, Sirivelu MP. Circulating neurofilament light chain as a promising biomarker of AAV-induced dorsal root ganglia toxicity in nonclinical toxicology species. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2022; 25:264-277. [PMID: 35505662 PMCID: PMC9024379 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2022.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-induced dorsal root ganglia (DRG) toxicity has been observed in several nonclinical species, where lesions are characterized by neuronal degeneration/necrosis, nerve fiber degeneration, and mononuclear cell infiltration. As AAV vectors become an increasingly common platform for novel therapeutics, non-invasive biomarkers are needed to better characterize and manage the risk of DRG neurotoxicity in both nonclinical and clinical studies. Based on biological relevance, reagent availability, antibody cross-reactivity, DRG protein expression, and assay performance, neurofilament light chain (NF-L) emerged as a promising biomarker candidate. Dose- and time-dependent changes in NF-L were evaluated in male Wistar Han rats and cynomolgus monkeys following intravenous or intrathecal AAV injection, respectively. NF-L profiles were then compared against microscopic DRG lesions on day 29 post-dosing. In animals exhibiting DRG toxicity, plasma/serum NF-L was strongly associated with the severity of neuronal degeneration/necrosis and nerve fiber degeneration, with elevations beginning as early as day 8 in rats (≥5 × 1013 vg/kg) and day 14 in monkeys (≥3.3 × 1013 vg/dose). Consistent with the unique positioning of DRGs outside the blood-brain barrier, NF-L in cerebrospinal fluid was only weakly associated with DRG findings. In summary, circulating NF-L is a promising biomarker of AAV-induced DRG toxicity in nonclinical species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Fader
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | | | - Ramesh C Kovi
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 300 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Christopher J Somps
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Groton, CT 06340, USA
| | - Helen Hong Wang
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 300 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Vishal S Vaidya
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 300 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Shashi K Ramaiah
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 300 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Madhu P Sirivelu
- Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., 300 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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14
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Tukov FF, Mansfield K, Milton M, Meseck E, Penraat K, Chand D, Hartmann A. Single-Dose Intrathecal Dorsal Root Ganglia Toxicity of Onasemnogene Abeparvovec in Cynomolgus Monkeys. Hum Gene Ther 2022; 33:740-756. [PMID: 35331006 PMCID: PMC9347375 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2021.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravenous onasemnogene abeparvovec is approved for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy in children < 2 years. For later-onset patients, intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec may be advantageous over intravenous administration. Recently, microscopic dorsal root ganglion (DRG) changes were observed in nonhuman primates (NHPs) following intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration. To characterize these DRG findings, two NHP studies evaluating intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration were conducted: a 12-month study with a 6-week interim cohort and a 13-week study with a 2-week interim cohort. The latter investigated the potential impact of prednisolone or rituximab plus everolimus on DRG toxicity. An additional 6-month, single-dose, intravenous NHP study conducted in parallel evaluated onasemnogene abeparvovec safety (including DRG toxicity) with or without prednisolone coadministration. Intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration was well tolerated and not associated with clinical observations. Microscopic onasemnogene abeparvovec-related changes were observed in the DRG and trigeminal ganglion (TG) and included mononuclear cell inflammation and/or neuronal degeneration, which was colocalized with high vector transcript expression at 6 weeks postdose. Incidence and severity of DRG changes were generally decreased after 52 weeks compared with 6 weeks postdose. Other onasemnogene abeparvovec-related microscopic findings of axonal degeneration, mononuclear cell infiltrates and/or gliosis in the spinal cord, dorsal spinal nerve root/spinal nerves, and/or peripheral nerves were absent or found at decreased incidences and/or severities after 52 weeks. DRG and/or TG microscopic findings following intravenous onasemnogene abeparvovec dosing included minimal to slight neuronal degeneration and mononuclear cell inflammation at 6 weeks and 6 months postdose. Nervous system microscopic findings following intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec (≥1.2 × 1013 vg/animal) trended toward resolution after 52 weeks, supporting nonprogression of changes, including in the DRG. Onasemnogene abeparvovec-related DRG findings were not associated with electrophysiology changes and were not ameliorated by prednisolone or rituximab plus everolimus coadministration. The pathogenesis is possibly a consequence of increased vector genome transduction and/or transgene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keith Mansfield
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Mark Milton
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Emily Meseck
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp, 33412, East Hanover, New Jersey, United States;
| | - Kelley Penraat
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Deepa Chand
- Novartis Gene Therapies, Inc., Bannockburn, United States.,Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, 12275, St Louis, Missouri, United States;
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15
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OUP accepted manuscript. Brain 2022; 145:2247-2249. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awac125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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