miR-26a attenuates colitis and colitis-associated cancer by targeting the multiple intestinal inflammatory pathways

Pathogenesis of Sarcopenia in Chronic Kidney Disease-The Role of Inflammation, Metabolic Dysregulation, Gut Dysbiosis, and microRNA

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive disorder associated with a decline in kidney function. Consequently, patients with advanced stages of CKD require renal replacement therapies, such as dialysis and kidney transplantation. Various conditions lead to the development of CKD, including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and glomerulonephritis, among others. The disease is associated with metabolic and hormonal dysregulation, including uraemia and hyperparathyroidism, as well as with low-grade systemic inflammation. Altered homeostasis increases the risk of developing severe comorbidities, such as cardiovascular diseases or sarcopenia, which increase mortality. Sarcopenia is defined as a progressive decline in muscle mass and function. However, the precise mechanisms that link CKD and the development of sarcopenia are poorly understood. Knowledge about these linking mechanisms might lead to the introduction of precise treatment strategies that could prevent muscle wasting. This review discusses inflammatory mediators, metabolic and hormonal dysregulation, gut microbiota dysbiosis, and non-coding RNA alterations that could link CKD and sarcopenia.

Pancreatic cancer cells hijack tumor suppressive microRNA-26a to promote radioresistance and potentiate tumor repopulation

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most lethal cancers with significant radioresistance and tumor repopulation after radiotherapy. As a type of short non-coding RNA that regulate various biological and pathological processes, miRNAs might play vital role in radioresistance. We found by miRNA sequencing that microRNA-26a (miR-26a) was upregulated in pancreatic cancer cells after radiation, and returned to normal state after a certain time. miR-26a was defined as a tumor suppressive miRNA by conventional tumor biology experiments. However, transient upregulation of miR-26a after radiation significantly promoted radioresistance, while stable overexpression inhibited radioresistance, highlighting the importance of molecular dynamic changes after treatment. Mechanically, transient upregulation of miR-26a promoted cell cycle arrest and DNA damage repair to promote radioresistance. Further experiments confirmed HMGA2 as the direct functional target, which is an oncogene but enhances radiosensitivity. Moreover, PTGS2 was also the target of miR-26a, which might potentiate tumor repopulation via delaying the synthesis of PGE2. Overall, this study revealed that transient upregulation of miR-26a after radiation promoted radioresistance and potentiated tumor repopulation, highlighting the importance of dynamic changes of molecules upon radiotherapy.

Pro-inflammatory Cytokines Promote the Occurrence and Development of Colitis-associated Colorectal Cancer by Inhibiting miR-615-5p

BACKGROUND

Patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) may be prone to colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC), but there is still a poor understanding of the underlying mechanism so far. This study intended to clarify the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines and miR-615-5p in this process.

METHODS

This experiment first detected miR-615-5p expressions in paraffin-embedded sections of colonic tissues from patients with UC and CAC. Then, we investigated the mechanism through which pro-inflammatory cytokines affected miR-615-5p. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro tests were performed to identify how miR-615-5p affected colorectal cancer (CRC). Dual-luciferase reporter assay was then employed to identify the targeting relationship between miR-615-5p and stanniocalcin-1 (STC1).

RESULTS

The miR-615-5p was lowly expressed in both cancerous and noncancerous colonic tissues of patients with CAC. Pro-inflammatory cytokines downregulated miR-615-5p expression. Overexpression of miR-615-5p reduced the proliferation and migration of CRC cells and had a certain therapeutic effect on in human CRC xenograft mice. Stanniocalcin-1 was identified to be a target gene of miR-615-5p and was involved in the effect of miR-615-5p on CRC.

CONCLUSIONS

During the progression from UC to CAC, pro-inflammatory cytokines downregulate miR-615-5p, which may induce the upregulation of STC1, and promote the occurrence and development of tumors. These findings offer new insights into the mechanism of CAC and may indicate novel tumor markers or therapeutic targets.

MicroRNA-200 Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles Promote Intestinal Epithelium Regeneration in Canonical MicroRNA-Deficient Mice

Intestinal epithelium undergoes regeneration after injuries, and the disruption of this process can lead to inflammatory bowel disease and tumorigenesis. Intestinal stem cells (ISCs) residing in the crypts are crucial for maintaining the intestinal epithelium's homeostasis and promoting regeneration upon injury. However, the precise role of DGCR8, a critical component in microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis, in intestinal regeneration remains poorly understood. In this study, we provide compelling evidence demonstrating the indispensable role of epithelial miRNAs in the regeneration of the intestine in mice subjected to 5-FU or irradiation-induced injury. Through a comprehensive pooled screen of miRNA function in Dgcr8-deficient organoids, we observe that the loss of the miR-200 family leads to the hyperactivation of the p53 pathway, thereby reducing ISCs and impairing epithelial regeneration. Notably, downregulation of the miR-200 family and hyperactivation of the p53 pathway are verified in colonic tissues from patients with active ulcerative colitis (UC). Most importantly, the transient supply of miR-200 through the oral delivery of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) carrying miR-200 restores ISCs and promotes intestinal regeneration in mice following acute injury. Our study implies the miR-200/p53 pathway as a promising therapeutic target for active UC patients with diminished levels of the miR-200 family. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the clinical application of LNP-miRNAs could enhance the efficacy, safety, and acceptability of existing therapeutic modalities for intestinal diseases.

Extracellular vesicles derived from human ESC-MSCs target macrophage and promote anti-inflammation process, angiogenesis, and functional recovery in ACS-induced severe skeletal muscle injury

BACKGROUND

Acute compartment syndrome (ACS) is one of the most common complications of musculoskeletal injury, leading to the necrosis and demise of skeletal muscle cells. Our previous study showed that embryonic stem cells-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ESC-MSCs) are novel therapeutics in ACS treatment. As extracellular vesicles (EVs) are rapidly gaining attention as cell-free therapeutics that have advantages over parental stem cells, the therapeutic potential and mechanisms of EVs from ESC-MSCs on ACS need to be explored.

METHOD

In the present study, we examined the protective effects in the experimental ACS rat model and investigated the role of macrophages in mediating these effects. Next, we used transcriptome sequencing to explore the mechanisms by which ESC-MSC-EVs regulate macrophage polarization. Furthermore, miRNA sequencing was performed on ESC-MSC-EVs to identify miRNA candidates associated with macrophage polarization.

RESULTS

We found that intravenous administration of ESC-MSC-EVs, given at the time of fasciotomy, significantly promotes the anti-inflammation process, angiogenesis, and functional recovery of muscle in ACS. The beneficial effects were associated with ESC-MSC-EVs affecting macrophage polarization by delivering various miRNAs which regulate NF-κB, JAK/STAT, and PI3K/AKT pathways. Our data further illustrate that ESC-MSC-EVs mainly modulate macrophage polarization via the miR-21/PTEN, miR-320a/PTEN, miR-423/NLRP3, miR-100/mTOR, and miR-26a/TLR3 axes.

CONCLUSION

Together, our results demonstrated the beneficial effects of ESC-MSC-EVs in ACS, wherein the miRNAs present in ESC-MSC-EVs regulate the polarization of macrophages.

Circular RNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma: biogenesis, function, and pathology

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Both genetic and environmental factors through a multitude of underlying molecular mechanisms participate in the pathogenesis of HCC. Recently, numerous studies have shown that circular RNAs (circRNAs), an emerging class of non-coding RNAs characterized by the presence of covalent bonds linking 3' and 5' ends, play an important role in the initiation and progression of cancers, including HCC. In this review, we outline the current status of the field of circRNAs, with an emphasis on the functions and mechanisms of circRNAs in HCC and its microenvironment. We also summarize and discuss recent advances of circRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. These efforts are anticipated to throw new insights into future perspectives about circRNAs in basic, translational and clinical research, eventually advancing the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of HCC.

Overexpression of miRNA 26a and 26b with MMP-9 are valuable diagnostic biomarkers for colorectal cancer patients

Background: The key role of miRNA expression in incidence and progression of colorectal cancer (CLC) have been developed over the last decade. Materials & methods: A total of 153 subjects were enrolled into two phases: 14 selected miRNAs were first evaluated in 50 subjects, then miR-26a and miR-26b relative expression were further evaluated in 103 subjects and their target protein MMP-9 was measured. Results: miR-26a and -26b showed highly significant overexpression. Both miR-26a and -26b (p < 0.001) had high diagnostic efficacy for CRC. There was a significant increase in serum MMP-9 protein in CRC patients with positive correlation with miR-26a and -26b expression levels (p < 0.001). Conclusion: miRNA 26a and 26b with MMP-9 can be used as diagnostic biomarker for CRC patients.

Roles of macrophages on ulcerative colitis and colitis-associated colorectal cancer

Colitis-associated colorectal cancer is the most serious complication of ulcerative colitis. Long-term chronic inflammation increases the incidence of CAC in UC patients. Compared with sporadic colorectal cancer, CAC means multiple lesions, worse pathological type and worse prognosis. Macrophage is a kind of innate immune cell, which play an important role both in inflammatory response and tumor immunity. Macrophages are polarized into two phenotypes under different conditions: M1 and M2. In UC, enhanced macrophage infiltration produces a large number of inflammatory cytokines, which promote tumorigenesis of UC. M1 polarization has an anti-tumor effect after CAC formation, whereas M2 polarization promotes tumor growth. M2 polarization plays a tumor-promoting role. Some drugs have been shown to that prevent and treat CAC effectively by targeting macrophages.

A comprehensive review on RNA interference-mediated targeting of interleukins and its potential therapeutic implications in colon cancer

Colon cancer is the world's fourth leading cause of death. It is cancer of the latter part of the large intestine, i.e. the colon. Chronic inflammation over a long period also leads to the development of cancer. Cancer in the colon region is arduous to diagnose and is detected at a later stage when it metastasizes to other parts of the body like the liver, lungs, peritoneum, etc. Colon cancer is a great example of solid tumours associated with chronic inflammation. Although conventional therapies are effective, they lose their effectiveness beyond a certain point. Relapse of the disease occurs frequently. RNA interference (RNAi) is emerging as a great tool to specifically attack the cancer cells of a target site like the colon. RNAi deals with epigenetic changes made in the defective cells which ultimately leads to their death without harming the healthy cells. In this review, two types of epigenetic modulators have been considered, namely siRNA and miRNA, and their effect on interleukins. Interleukins, a class of cytokines, are major inflammatory responses of the body that are released by immune cells like leukocytes and macrophages. Some of these interleukins are pro-inflammatory, thereby promoting inflammation which eventually causes cancer. RNAi can prevent colon cancer by inhibiting pro-inflammatory interleukins.

Gut Microbiota-MicroRNA Interactions in Intestinal Homeostasis and Cancer Development

Pre-clinical models and clinical studies highlight the significant impact of the host-microbiota relationship on cancer development and treatment, supporting the emerging trend for a microbiota-based approach in clinical oncology. Importantly, the presence of polymorphic microbes is considered one of the hallmarks of cancer. The epigenetic regulation of gene expression by microRNAs affects crucial biological processes, including proliferation, differentiation, metabolism, and cell death. Recent evidence has documented the existence of bidirectional gut microbiota-microRNA interactions that play a critical role in intestinal homeostasis. Importantly, alterations in microRNA-modulated gene expression are known to be associated with inflammatory responses and dysbiosis in gastrointestinal disorders. In this review, we summarize the current findings about miRNA expression in the intestine and focus on specific gut microbiota-miRNA interactions linked to intestinal homeostasis, the immune system, and cancer development. We discuss the potential clinical utility of fecal miRNA profiling as a diagnostic and prognostic tool in colorectal cancer, and demonstrate how the emerging trend of gut microbiota modulation, together with the use of personalized microRNA therapeutics, might bring improvements in outcomes for patients with gastrointestinal cancer in the era of precision medicine.

A miRNA-mediated attenuation of hepatocarcinogenesis in both hepatocytes and Kupffer cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate a variety of physiological and pathological functions. miR-26a is one of the many miRNAs that have been identified as regulators of cancer development and as potential anticancer drug targets. However, the specific cellular and molecular mechanisms by which miR-26a attenuates hepatocarcinogenesis are still elusive. Here, we interrogated mouse models with miR-26a cell-specific overexpression in either hepatocytes or myeloid cells to show that miR-26a strongly attenuated the chemical-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). miR-26a overexpression broadly inhibited the inflammatory response in both hepatocytes and macrophages by decreasing several key oncogenic signaling pathways in HCC promotion. These findings thus reveal new insights into a concerted role of miR-26a in both hepatocytes and Kupffer cells to suppress hepatocarcinogenesis, thereby highlighting the potential use of miR-26a mimetics as potential approaches for the prevention and treatment of HCC.

MicroRNAs in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Its Complications

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), classified primarily between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, is a collection of chronic gastrointestinal inflammatory conditions that cause multiple complications because of systemic alterations in the immune response. One major player is microRNA (miRNA), which is found to be associated with multiple pathways in mediating inflammation, especially those of a chronic nature in IBD, as well as irritable bowel syndrome. Although there have been studies linking miRNA alterations in IBD, even differentiating Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, this review focuses mainly on how miRNAs cause and mechanistically influence the pathologic complications of IBD. In addition to its role in the well-known progression towards colorectal cancer, we also emphasize how miRNA manifests the many extraintestinal complications in IBD such as cardiovascular diseases; neuropsychiatric conditions such as depression and anxiety disorders; and others, including various musculoskeletal, dermatologic, ocular, and hepatobiliary complications. We conclude through a description of its potential use in bettering diagnostics and the future treatment of IBD and its systemic symptoms.

Chang qing formula ameliorates colitis-associated colorectal cancer via suppressing IL-17/NF-κB/STAT3 pathway in mice as revealed by network pharmacology study

Colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) is a specific type of colorectal cancer (CRC) with high mortality and morbidity, the chronic inflammation in the intestinal mucosal is the characteristic of CAC. Chang Qing formula (CQF) is a Chinese herbal formula used clinically for the treatment of CAC with remarkable clinical efficacy, but its mechanism remains unclear. In the present work, Combined network pharmacology and transcriptomics were used to analyze the potential active ingredients and elucidate molecular mechanism of CQF in treating CAC. Firstly, the constituents migrating to blood of CQF were analyzed and identified by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, and core genes and pathways were screened by network pharmacology analysis. Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that the IL-17 signaling pathway involved in CAC may be closely associated with the potential mechanismof action of CQF. Subsequently, the results from animal studies indicated that CQF profoundly reduced tumor numbers and tumor size in AOM/DSS mice. The RNA-seq data was analysed utilizing Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), and the results supported the idea that CQF exerts a tumour-suppressive effect via the IL-17 signalling pathway. Further studies demonstrated that CQF significantly reduced IL-17A levels, which in turn inhibited NF-κB/IL-6/STAT3 signaling cascade, suppressed MMP9 expression and promoted tumor cell apoptosis. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that CQF remarkably improved inflammatory tumor microenvironment, and hindered the transformation of inflammation into cancer. These findings may help to design future strategies for the treatment of CAC.

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Enriched Camel Milk Attenuated Colitis Symptoms in Mice Model

Fermented camel's milk has various health beneficial prebiotics and probiotics. This study aimed to evaluate the preventive efficacy of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens enriched camel milk (BEY) in 2-, 4- and 6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis mice models. To this end, the immune modulatory effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA) on TNF-α challenged HT29 colon cells were estimated using the cell proliferation and cytokines ELISA method. BEY was prepared using the incubation method and nutritional value was quantified by comparing it to commercial yogurt. Furthermore, TNBS-induced colitis was established and the level of disease index, pathological scores, and inflammatory markers of BEY-treated mice using macroscopic and microscopic examinations, qPCR and immunoblot were investigated. The results demonstrate that BA is non-toxic to HT29 colon cells and balanced the inflammatory cytokines. BEY reduced the colitis disease index, and improved the body weight and colon length of the TNBS-induced mice. Additionally, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL8 and TNF-α) were attenuated by BEY treatment. Moreover, the inflammatory progress mRNA and protein markers nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and occludin were significantly down-regulated by BEY treatment. Interestingly, significant suppression of PCNA was observed in colonic tissues using the immunohistochemical examination. Treatment with BEY increased the epigenetic (microRNA217) interactions with PCNA. In conclusion, the BEY clearly alleviated the colitis symptoms and in the future could be used to formulate a probiotic-based diet for the host gut health and control the inflammatory bowel syndrome in mammals.

Extracellular vesicles in human milk

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Milk-derived extracellular vesicles (MDEVs) are nanovesicles that carry microRNA (miRNA) DNA, RNA, proteins and lipids. MDEVs have a potential of therapeutic targets, based on their properties and cargo profile. The present review summarizes recent studies on MDEVs, their cargo and potential role in mammalian development.

RECENT FINDINGS

The detailed characterization of their miRNA cargo leads to the conclusion of their potential importance in the regulation of gene expression, immune function, development and infant growth.While their miRNAs are important regulatory elements and their profile expression was characterized in various mammalian milk sources, little is known about their effect on infant health and development. MiRNA activity in breast milk is likely influenced by the overall ecosystem of the early environment, including maternal characteristics, behaviors, and health.

SUMMARY

MDEVs may have an important role in early child development and infant future health. Understanding benefits of MDEVs characteristics have potential role on gut maturation, immune system development and the prevention of metabolic disorders.

A microRNA checkpoint for Ca2+ signaling and overload in acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis (AP) is a common digestive disease without specific treatment, and its pathogenesis features multiple deleterious amplification loops dependent on translation, triggered by cytosolic Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) overload; however, the underlying mechanisms in Ca2+ overload of AP remains incompletely understood. Here we show that microRNA-26a (miR-26a) inhibits pancreatic acinar cell (PAC) store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) channel expression, Ca2+ overload, and AP. We find that major SOCE channels are post-transcriptionally induced in PACs during AP, whereas miR-26a expression is reduced in experimental and human AP and correlated with AP severity. Mechanistically, miR-26a simultaneously targets Trpc3 and Trpc6 SOCE channels and attenuates physiological oscillations and pathological elevations of [Ca2+]i in PACs. MiR-26a deficiency increases SOCE channel expression and [Ca2+]i overload, and significantly exacerbates AP. Conversely, global or PAC-specific overexpression of miR-26a in mice ameliorates pancreatic edema, neutrophil infiltration, acinar necrosis, and systemic inflammation, accompanied with remarkable improvements on pathological determinants related with [Ca2+]i overload. Moreover, pancreatic or systemic administration of an miR-26a mimic to mice significantly alleviates experimental AP. These findings reveal a previously unknown mechanism underlying AP pathogenesis, establish a critical role for miR-26a in Ca2+ signaling in the exocrine pancreas, and identify a potential target for the treatment of AP.

MiR-126 downregulates CXCL12 expression in intestinal epithelial cells to suppress the recruitment and function of macrophages and tumorigenesis in a murine model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer

Inflammatory bowel disease, characterised by chronic relapsing‐remitting colitis, is a significant risk factor for colorectal cancer (CRC). Previously, we showed that miR‐126 functions as a tumour suppressor in CRC and is inversely correlated with tumour proliferation, metastasis and patient prognosis. In the current study, we documented a protective role for miR‐126 in colitis‐associated CRC (CAC) and its underlying mechanism. We detected downregulated miR‐126 expression during colorectal tumorigenesis in the mouse CAC model and in specimens from patients with CRC. The deficiency of miR‐126 in intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) exacerbated tumorigenesis in mice. We identified CXCL12 as a direct target of miR‐126 in inhibiting the development of colitis and CAC. Moreover, miR‐126 regulated the recruitment of macrophages via CXCL12 and decreased the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL‐6, IL‐12 and IL‐23). In addition, IL‐6 secreted by macrophages, which were regulated by cocultured transfected CRC cells, altered the proliferation and migration of colon cells. Our data suggest that miR‐126 exerts an antitumour effect on CAC by regulating the crosstalk between IECs and macrophages via CXCL12‐IL‐6 signalling. Our study contributes to the understanding of cancer progression and suggests miR‐126 as a potential therapy for CRC.

Genetic Variants of MicroRNA and DROSHA Genes in Association With the Risk of Tuberculosis in the Amazon Population

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) with high incidence and mortality. Studies reported that host genetic variants might be associated with the risk of tuberculosis. The aim of this study was to perform an association study between 26 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and tuberculosis and evaluate whether these SNPs may confer risk factors to tuberculosis in the Amazon population. There were 52 males and 126 females, with total of 178 healthy controls. Genotyping was performed using TaqMan Open Array Genotyping. Ancestry-informative markers were used to estimate the ancestral proportions of the individuals in the case and control groups. The results indicated that the SNPs rs10035440 (DROSHA), rs7372209 (miR26-a1), rs1834306 (miR100), rs4919510 (miR608), and rs10739971 (pri-let-7a-1) were significantly associated with high risk and rs3746444 (miR499) and rs6505162 (miR423), with low risk of developing tuberculosis in the Amazon population. Our study concluded that seven miRNA polymorphisms were associated with tuberculosis. Our study contributes to a better understanding of TB pathogenesis and may promote the development of new diagnostic tools against M. tuberculosis infection.

Knockdown of miR-26a in zebrafish leads to impairment of the anti-inflammatory function of TnP in the control of neutrophilia

Our recent data show the valuable potential of TnP for the development of a new and safe anti-inflammatory drug due to its ability to control the traffic and activation of leukocytes in response to inflammation. Although there is considerable knowledge surrounding the cellular mechanisms of TnP, less is known about the mechanistic molecular role of TnP underlying its immunomodulatory functions. Here, we conducted investigations to identify whether miRNAs could be one of the molecular bases of the therapeutic effect of TnP. Using a zebrafish model of neutrophilic inflammation with a combination of genetic gain- and loss-of-function approaches, we showed that TnP treatment was followed by up-regulation of only four known miRNAs, and mature dre-miR-26a-1, herein referred just as miR-26a was the first most highly expressed. The knockdown of miR-26a ubiquitously resulted in a significant reduction of miR-26a in embryos, accompanied by impaired TnP immunomodulatory function observed by the loss of the control of the removal of neutrophils in response to inflammation, while the overexpression increased the inhibition of neutrophilic inflammation promoted by TnP. The striking importance of miR-26a was confirmed when rescue strategies were used (morpholino and mimic combination). Our results identified miR-26a as an essential molecular regulator of the therapeutic action of TnP, and suggest that miR-26a or its targets could be used as promising therapeutic candidates for enhancing the resolution of inflammation.

Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog in Non-neoplastic Digestive Disease: More Than Just Tumor Suppressor

The Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) gene is one of the most important tumor suppressor genes, which acts through its unique protein phosphatase and lipid phosphatase activity. PTEN protein is widely distributed and exhibits complex biological functions and regulatory modes. It is involved in the regulation of cell morphology, proliferation, differentiation, adhesion, and migration through a variety of signaling pathways. The role of PTEN in malignant tumors of the digestive system is well documented. Recent studies have indicated that PTEN may be closely related to many other benign processes in digestive organs. Emerging evidence suggests that PTEN is a potential therapeutic target in the context of several non-neoplastic diseases of the digestive tract. The recent discovery of PTEN isoforms is expected to help unravel more biological effects of PTEN in non-neoplastic digestive diseases.