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Pinski AN, Gan T, Lin SC, Droit L, Diamond M, Barouch DH, Wang D. Isolation of a recombinant simian adenovirus encoding the human adenovirus G52 hexon suggests a simian origin for human adenovirus G52. J Virol 2024; 98:e0004324. [PMID: 38497664 PMCID: PMC11019922 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00043-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) are causative agents of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. These double-stranded DNA viruses are phylogenetically classified into seven different species (A-G). HAdV-G52, originally isolated in 2008 from a patient presenting with gastroenteritis, is the sole human-derived member of species G. Phylogenetic analysis previously suggested that HAdV-G52 may have a simian origin, indicating a potential zoonotic spillover into humans. However, evidence of HAdV-G52 in either human or simian populations has not been reported since. Here, we describe the isolation and in vitro characterization of rhesus (rh)AdV-69, a novel simian AdV with clear evidence of recombination with HAdV-G52, from the stool of a rhesus macaque. Specifically, the rhAdV-69 hexon capsid protein is 100% identical to that of HAdV-G52, whereas the remainder of the genome is most similar to rhAdV-55, sharing 95.36% nucleic acid identity. A second recombination event with an unknown adenovirus (AdV) is evident at the short fiber gene. From the same sample, we also isolated a second, highly related recombinant AdV (rhAdV-68) that harbors a distinct hexon gene but nearly identical backbone compared to rhAdV-69. In vitro, rhAdV-68 and rhAdV-69 demonstrate comparable growth kinetics and tropisms in human cell lines, nonhuman cell lines, and human enteroids. Furthermore, we show that coinfection of highly related AdVs is not unique to this sample since we also isolated coinfecting rhAdVs from two additional rhesus macaque stool samples. Our data collectively contribute to elucidating the origins of HAdV-G52 and provide insights into the frequency of coinfections and subsequent recombination in AdV evolution.IMPORTANCEUnderstanding the host origins of adenoviruses (AdVs) is critical for public health as transmission of viruses from animals to humans can lead to emergent viruses. Recombination between animal and human AdVs can also produce emergent viruses. HAdV-G52 is the only human-derived member of the HAdV G species. It has been suggested that HAdV-G52 has a simian origin. Here, we isolated from a rhesus macaque, a novel rhAdV, rhAdV-69, that encodes a hexon protein that is 100% identical to that of HAdV-G52. This observation suggests that HAdV-G52 may indeed have a simian origin. We also isolated a highly related rhAdV, differing only in the hexon gene, from the same rhesus macaque stool sample as rhAdV-69, illustrating the potential for co-infection of closely related AdVs and recombination at the hexon gene. Furthermore, our study highlights the critical role of whole-genome sequencing in understanding AdV evolution and monitoring the emergence of pathogenic AdVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda N. Pinski
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Tianyu Gan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Shih-Ching Lin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Lindsay Droit
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Michael Diamond
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Dan H. Barouch
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - David Wang
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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Trivedi PD, Byrne BJ, Corti M. Evolving Horizons: Adenovirus Vectors' Timeless Influence on Cancer, Gene Therapy and Vaccines. Viruses 2023; 15:2378. [PMID: 38140619 PMCID: PMC10747483 DOI: 10.3390/v15122378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficient and targeted delivery of a DNA payload is vital for developing safe gene therapy. Owing to the recent success of commercial oncolytic vector and multiple COVID-19 vaccines, adenovirus vectors are back in the spotlight. Adenovirus vectors can be used in gene therapy by altering the wild-type virus and making it replication-defective; specific viral genes can be removed and replaced with a segment that holds a therapeutic gene, and this vector can be used as delivery vehicle for tissue specific gene delivery. Modified conditionally replicative-oncolytic adenoviruses target tumors exclusively and have been studied in clinical trials extensively. This comprehensive review seeks to offer a summary of adenovirus vectors, exploring their characteristics, genetic enhancements, and diverse applications in clinical and preclinical settings. A significant emphasis is placed on their crucial role in advancing cancer therapy and the latest breakthroughs in vaccine clinical trials for various diseases. Additionally, we tackle current challenges and future avenues for optimizing adenovirus vectors, promising to open new frontiers in the fields of cell and gene therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Manuela Corti
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; (P.D.T.); (B.J.B.)
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Dogadov DI, Kyuregyan KK, Alexandra GM, Minosyan AA, Kochkonyan AA, Karlsen AA, Vyshemirsky OI, Karal-Ogly DD, Mikhailov MI. Markers of antroponotic viral infections in vervet monkeys arrived from their natural habitat (Tanzania). Vopr Virusol 2023; 68:394-403. [PMID: 38156576 DOI: 10.36233/0507-4088-188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Various human viruses have been identified in wild monkeys and in captive primates. Cases of transmission of viruses from wild monkeys to humans and vice versa are known. The aim of this study was to identify markers of anthroponotic viral infections in vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) arrived from their natural habitat (Tanzania). MATERIALS AND METHODS Fecal samples (n = 56) and blood serum samples (n = 75) obtained from 75 animals, respectively, on days 10 and 23 after admission to the primate center, were tested for the markers of anthroponotic viral infections (Ebola virus, Marburg virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis, hepatitis C virus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), parainfluenza types 1 and 3, intestinal adenoviruses, rotaviruses) by enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Among the examined animals, markers of 6 out of 11 tested viral infections were identified. Detection rates of IgG antibodies to HSV-1,2 (15.9%) and CMV (15.9%) were two times as low as IgG antibodies to EBV (31.8%). Among the markers of respiratory viral infections, IgG antibodies to parainfluenza virus type 1 were found (6.8%). 14.3% of the animals had rotavirus antigen, and 94% had simian adenovirus DNA. Markers of hemorrhagic fevers Ebola, Marburg, LCM, hepatitis C, and type 3 parainfluenza were not detected. CONCLUSION When importing monkeys from different regions of the world, an expanded screening for viral infections is needed considering the epidemiological situation both in the country of importation and in the country of destination.
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Affiliation(s)
- D I Dogadov
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - K K Kyuregyan
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology of the Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing
- I.I. Mechnikov Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera
| | - G M Alexandra
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - A A Minosyan
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - A A Kochkonyan
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - A A Karlsen
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology of the Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing
- I.I. Mechnikov Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera
| | - O I Vyshemirsky
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - D D Karal-Ogly
- Research Institute of Medical Primatology of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia
| | - M I Mikhailov
- Central Research Institute of Epidemiology of the Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing
- I.I. Mechnikov Research Institute of Vaccines and Sera
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Lan W, Quan L, Li Y, Ou J, Duan B, Mei T, Tan X, Chen W, Feng L, Wan C, Zhao W, Chodosh J, Seto D, Zhang Q. Isolation of novel simian adenoviruses from macaques for development of a vector for human gene therapy and vaccines. J Virol 2023; 97:e0101423. [PMID: 37712705 PMCID: PMC10617444 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01014-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Adenoviruses are widely used in gene therapy and vaccine delivery. Due to the high prevalence of human adenoviruses (HAdVs), the pre-existing immunity against HAdVs in humans is common, which limits the wide and repetitive use of HAdV vectors. In contrast, the pre-existing immunity against simian adenoviruses (SAdVs) is low in humans. Therefore, we performed epidemiological investigations of SAdVs in simians and found that the SAdV prevalence was as high as 33.9%. The whole-genome sequencing and sequence analysis showed SAdV diversity and possible cross species transmission. One isolate with low level of pre-existing neutralizing antibodies in humans was used to construct replication-deficient SAdV vectors with E4orf6 substitution and E1/E3 deletion. Interestingly, we found that the E3 region plays a critical role in its replication in human cells, but the absence of this region could be compensated for by the E4orf6 from HAdV-5 and the E1 expression intrinsic to HEK293 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendong Lan
- BSL-3 Laboratory (Guangdong), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lulu Quan
- BSL-3 Laboratory (Guangdong), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yiqiang Li
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Junxian Ou
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Biyan Duan
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ting Mei
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiao Tan
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weiwei Chen
- The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Liqiang Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Chengsong Wan
- BSL-3 Laboratory (Guangdong), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- BSL-3 Laboratory (Guangdong), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - James Chodosh
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - Donald Seto
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, Virginia, USA
| | - Qiwei Zhang
- BSL-3 Laboratory (Guangdong), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Key Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis & Infection Prevention and Control (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Meesawat S, Aiempichitkijkarn N, Warit S, Kaewparuehaschai M, Malaivijitnond S. Non-invasive specimen collections for Mycobacterium tuberculosis detection in free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). PLoS One 2023; 18:e0289961. [PMID: 37616219 PMCID: PMC10449189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Surveillance of infectious diseases in free-ranging or wild animals has been widely conducted in many habitat-range countries after the COVID-19 episode. Thailand is located in the center of the distribution range of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis; Mf) where the animals have both frequent human contact and a high prevalence of human tuberculosis. For the large-scale detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) using IS6110-nested PCR in free-ranging Mf, non-invasive sampling was developed using oral (via rope bait) and fecal (direct swabs of fresh feces) specimen collection. Firstly, the MTBC-IS6110-nested PCR was validated in non-invasively collected specimens, in terms of its specificity and sensitivity, and then compared with those of the invasively collected oral and rectal swabs in 24 captive MTBC-suspected Mf. After validation, these methods were applied to survey for the prevalence of shed MTBC (MTBCS) in four previously reported MTBC-infected populations. A total of 173 baited rope specimens and 204 freshly defecated excretions were collected. The limit of detection of the IS6110-nested PCR technique was 10 fg/μL and the 181-bp PCR amplicon showed 100% sequence similarity with the MTB H37Rv genome sequence. Comparing the MTBCS detection between the invasive and non-invasive collected specimens in captive suspected Mf revealed a significant correlation between the two types of oral specimens (oral swabs and baited ropes; n = 24, r2 = 1, p-value < 0.001), but fresh fecal swabs showed higher MTBCS frequencies than the rectal swabs. Moreover, the proportion of MTBCS-positive free-ranging Mf were significantly higher in the fresh fecal swabs (8.82%; 95% CI; 4.9-12.7%) than in the baited ropes (5.20%; 95% CI; 1.9-8.5%). This result indicates that oral sampling via baited ropes and fecal sampling via defecated excretion swabs can serve as ancillary specimens for MTBCS detection in free-ranging non-human primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suthirote Meesawat
- Faculty of Science, Biological Sciences Program, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nalina Aiempichitkijkarn
- Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Saradee Warit
- Industrial Tuberculosis Team (ITBT), IMBG, BIOTEC, NSTDA, Thailand Science Park, Pathumthani, Thailand
| | - Mutchamon Kaewparuehaschai
- Department of National Parks, Wildlife Rescue Center No.2 (Krabokkoo), Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Chachoengsao, Thailand
| | - Suchinda Malaivijitnond
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- National Primate Research Center of Thailand-Chulalongkorn University, Saraburi, Thailand
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Mancuso DM, Gainor K, Dore KM, Gallagher CA, Cruz K, Beierschmitt A, Malik YS, Ghosh S. Detection and Molecular Characterization of Adenoviruses in Captive and Free-Roaming African Green Monkeys ( Chlorocebus sabaeus): Evidence for Possible Recombination and Cross-Species Transmission. Viruses 2023; 15:1605. [PMID: 37515291 PMCID: PMC10385324 DOI: 10.3390/v15071605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, 31 samples (12 fecal, 9 nasal and 10 rectal swabs) from 28/92 (30.43%, 10 captive and 18 free-roaming African green monkeys (AGMs, Chlorocebus sabaeus)) apparently healthy AGMs in the Caribbean Island of St. Kitts tested positive for adenoviruses (AdVs) by DNA-dependent DNA polymerase (pol)-, or hexon-based screening PCR assays. Based on analysis of partial deduced amino acid sequences of Pol- and hexon- of nine AGM AdVs, at least two AdV genetic variants (group-I: seven AdVs with a Simian mastadenovirus-F (SAdV-F)/SAdV-18-like Pol and hexon, and group-II: two AdVs with a SAdV-F/SAdV-18-like Pol and a Human mastadenovirus-F (HAdV-F)/HAdV-40-like hexon) were identified, which was corroborated by analysis of the nearly complete putative Pol, complete hexon, and partial penton base sequences of a representative group-I (strain KNA-08975), and -II (KNA-S6) AdV. SAdV-F-like AdVs were reported for the first time in free-roaming non-human primates (NHPs) and after ~six decades from captive NHPs. Molecular characterization of KNA-S6 (and the other group-II AdV) indicated possible recombination and cross-species transmission events involving SAdV-F-like and HAdV-F-like viruses, corroborating the hypothesis that the evolutionary pathways of HAdVs and SAdVs are intermingled, complicated by recombination and inter-species transmission events, especially between related AdV species, such as HAdV-F and SAdV-F. To our knowledge, this is the first report on detection and molecular characterization of AdVs in AGMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Mancuso
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Kerry Gainor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Kerry M Dore
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
- National Coordinator, CABI/GEF/UNEP Regional Project-'Preventing the COSTS of Invasive Alien Species in Barbados and OECS Countries' in St. Kitts, Ministry of Environment, Climate Action and Constituency Development, Basseterre 00265, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Christa A Gallagher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Katalina Cruz
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Amy Beierschmitt
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Behavioral Science Foundation, Estridge Estate, Basseterre P.O. Box 428, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Yashpal S Malik
- College of Animal Biotechnology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, Ludhiana 141012, India
| | - Souvik Ghosh
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre P.O. Box 334, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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Kosoltanapiwat N, van der Hoek L, Kinsella CM, Tongshoob J, Prasittichai L, Klein M, Jebbink MF, Deijs M, Reamtong O, Boonnak K, Khongsiri W, Phadungsombat J, Tongthainan D, Tulayakul P, Yindee M. A Novel Simian Adenovirus Associating with Human Adeno-virus Species G Isolated from Long-Tailed Macaque Feces. Viruses 2023; 15:1371. [PMID: 37376670 PMCID: PMC10303043 DOI: 10.3390/v15061371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Metagenomics has demonstrated its capability in outbreak investigations and pathogen surveillance and discovery. With high-throughput and effective bioinformatics, many disease-causing agents, as well as novel viruses of humans and animals, have been identified using metagenomic analysis. In this study, a VIDISCA metagenomics workflow was used to identify potential unknown viruses in 33 fecal samples from asymptomatic long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Ratchaburi Province, Thailand. Putatively novel astroviruses, enteroviruses, and adenoviruses were detected and confirmed by PCR analysis of long-tailed macaque fecal samples collected from areas in four provinces, Ratchaburi, Kanchanaburi, Lopburi, and Prachuap Khiri Khan, where humans and monkeys live in proximity (total n = 187). Astroviruses, enteroviruses, and adenoviruses were present in 3.2%, 7.5%, and 4.8% of macaque fecal samples, respectively. One adenovirus, named AdV-RBR-6-3, was successfully isolated in human cell culture. Whole-genome analysis suggested that it is a new member of the species Human adenovirus G, closely related to Rhesus adenovirus 53, with evidence of genetic recombination and variation in the hexon, fiber, and CR1 genes. Sero-surveillance showed neutralizing antibodies against AdV-RBR-6-3 in 2.9% and 11.2% of monkeys and humans, respectively, suggesting cross-species infection of monkeys and humans. Overall, we reported the use of metagenomics to screen for possible new viruses, as well as the isolation and molecular and serological characterization of the new adenovirus with cross-species transmission potential. The findings emphasize that zoonotic surveillance is important and should be continued, especially in areas where humans and animals interact, to predict and prevent the threat of emerging zoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathamon Kosoltanapiwat
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (J.T.); (W.K.)
| | - Lia van der Hoek
- Amsterdam UMC, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (L.v.d.H.); (C.M.K.); (M.K.); (M.F.J.); (M.D.)
| | - Cormac M. Kinsella
- Amsterdam UMC, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (L.v.d.H.); (C.M.K.); (M.K.); (M.F.J.); (M.D.)
| | - Jarinee Tongshoob
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (J.T.); (W.K.)
| | - Luxsana Prasittichai
- Wildlife Conservation Division, Protected Areas Regional Office 3 (Ban Pong), Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Ratchaburi 70110, Thailand;
| | - Michelle Klein
- Amsterdam UMC, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (L.v.d.H.); (C.M.K.); (M.K.); (M.F.J.); (M.D.)
| | - Maarten F. Jebbink
- Amsterdam UMC, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (L.v.d.H.); (C.M.K.); (M.K.); (M.F.J.); (M.D.)
| | - Martin Deijs
- Amsterdam UMC, Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (L.v.d.H.); (C.M.K.); (M.K.); (M.F.J.); (M.D.)
| | - Onrapak Reamtong
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Kobporn Boonnak
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10700, Thailand;
| | - Wathusiri Khongsiri
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (J.T.); (W.K.)
| | - Juthamas Phadungsombat
- Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan;
| | - Daraka Tongthainan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok, Chonburi 20110, Thailand;
| | - Phitsanu Tulayakul
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Nakhon Pathom 73140, Thailand;
| | - Marnoch Yindee
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Nakhonsithammarat 80161, Thailand;
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