1
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Smith P, Mann J, Marsh A. Empathy for wildlife: The importance of the individual. AMBIO 2024; 53:1269-1280. [PMID: 38795282 PMCID: PMC11300747 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-024-02017-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/27/2024]
Abstract
Because climate change and the biodiversity crisis are driven by human actions, determining psychological mechanisms underpinning support for environmental action is an urgent priority. Here, we experimentally tested for mechanisms promoting conservation-related motivation and behavior toward a flagship species, wild Tamanend's bottlenose dolphins. Following evidence that empathy increases prosocial motivations and behavior, and that the ability to identify individual humans promotes empathy, we tested whether this relationship applied to the ability to identify individual dolphins. Participants identified dolphins from their dorsal fins at above chance levels, and better individuation correlated with higher empathy for dolphins and higher willingness to pledge environmental behaviors. Pairing a narrative with an image of an injured dolphin leads to higher donations relative to a narrative alone. Our novel finding that the ability to individually identify dolphins relates to empathy and conservation-related behavior suggests pathways for strengthening environmental attitudes and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Smith
- Environmental Justice Program, Earth Commons Institute, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA.
| | - Janet Mann
- Department of Biology and Department of Psychology, Earth Commons Institute, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | - Abigail Marsh
- Department of Psychology, Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Program in Cognitive Science, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
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2
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Mares I, Ewing L, Papasavva M, Ducrocq E, Smith FW, Smith ML. Face recognition ability is manifest in early dynamic decoding of face-orientation selectivity-Evidence from multi-variate pattern analysis of the neural response. Cortex 2023; 159:299-312. [PMID: 36669447 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2022.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Although humans are considered to be face experts, there is a well-established reliable variation in the degree to which neurotypical individuals are able to learn and recognise faces. While many behavioural studies have characterised these differences, studies that seek to relate the neuronal response to standardised behavioural measures of ability remain relatively scarce, particularly so for the time-resolved approaches and the early response to face stimuli. In the present study we make use of a relatively recent methodological advance, multi-variate pattern analysis (MVPA), to decode the time course of the neural response to faces compared to other object categories (inverted faces, objects). Importantly, for the first time, we directly relate metrics of this decoding assessed at the individual level to gold-standard measures of behavioural face processing ability assessed in an independent task. Thirty-nine participants completed the behavioural Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT), then viewed images of faces and houses (presented upright and inverted) while their neural activity was measured via electroencephalography. Significant decoding of both face orientation and face category were observed in all individual participants. Decoding of face orientation, a marker of more advanced face processing, was earlier and stronger in participants with higher levels of face expertise, while decoding of face category information was earlier but not stronger for individuals with greater face expertise. Taken together these results provide a marker of significant differences in the early neuronal response to faces from around 100 ms post stimulus as a function of behavioural expertise with faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Mares
- School of Psychological Science, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK; William James Center for Research, Ispa - Instituto Universitário, Portugal.
| | - Louise Ewing
- School of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Michael Papasavva
- School of Psychological Science, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
| | - Emmanuel Ducrocq
- School of Psychological Science, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
| | - Fraser W Smith
- School of Psychology, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Marie L Smith
- School of Psychological Science, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK; Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
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3
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Giannou K, Lander K, Taylor JR. Attentional Features of Mindfulness are Better Predictors of Face Recognition than Empathy and Compassion-Based Constructs. Psychol Rep 2022; 126:1481-1515. [PMID: 35113737 PMCID: PMC10173350 DOI: 10.1177/00332941211061698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has employed measures of either empathy, compassion or mindfulness and linked better face recognition memory to higher scores of identification with all humanity and mindfulness but not empathy or compassion. Additionally, empathy, compassion and mindfulness have been suggested as concepts that intertwine, but research has not yet examined how their respective personality questionnaires map onto latent concepts. We employed these measures together to explore their factor structure and, using structural equation modelling, we investigated if the suggested latent variables predict recognition memory performance for face and non-face stimuli. Attentional notions of mindfulness described a latent factor that predicted face recognition. All self-compassion facets and the non-react mindfulness facet described a latent factor, which predicted false alarms in face recognition. Finally, empathy and compassion-based notions described one latent factor, which did not predict recognition performance. None of the latent variables predicted performance in either object or voice recognition. Collectively, findings indicate attention-based mindfulness to benefit face recognition, prompting further research into the potential of mindfulness to support the face recognition process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyriaki Giannou
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, 12203The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Karen Lander
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, 12203The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Jason R Taylor
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, 12203The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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4
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Giacomin M, Brinton C, Rule NO. Narcissistic individuals exhibit poor recognition memory. J Pers 2021; 90:675-689. [PMID: 34797571 DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Here, we examine face memory among individuals who are self-focused and care little about others' needs: grandiose narcissists. Given narcissistic individuals' excessive self-focus and tendency to disregard the needs of others, they may struggle to recognize faces and their surrounding environment. Indeed, narcissistic individuals demonstrated worse recognition memory than non-narcissistic individuals in recognition memory tests for faces (Studies 1 [N = 332] and 2 [N = 261]). This difference also occurred for nonsocial stimuli (i.e., objects, houses, cars), suggesting a broad recognition deficit (Study 3A [N = 178], 3B [N = 203], 3C [N = 274]). Narcissistic individuals' excessive self-focus predicted this memory deficit (Study 4 [N = 187]). Grandiose narcissism may therefore influence visual recognition memory, highlighting the potential for future research linking personality and cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Giacomin
- Department of Psychology, MacEwan University, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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5
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Marcolin F, Vezzetti E, Monaci M. Face perception foundations for pattern recognition algorithms. Neurocomputing 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2021.02.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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6
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Bobak AK. The generalizability of the laboratory face processing assessment: Invited commentary on Ramon (2021). Neuropsychologia 2021; 158:107810. [PMID: 33636154 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Bobak
- Leverhulme Early Career Fellow Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, UK.
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7
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Megreya AM, Latzman RD. Individual differences in emotion regulation and face recognition. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243209. [PMID: 33301521 PMCID: PMC7728238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Face recognition ability is highly variable among neurologically intact populations. Across three experiments, this study examined for the first time associations between individual differences in a range of adaptive versus maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and face recognition. Using an immediate face-memory paradigm, in which observers had to identify a self-paced learned unfamiliar face from a 10-face target-present/ target-absent line-up, Experiment 1 (N = 42) found high levels of expressive suppression (the ongoing efforts to inhibit emotion-expressive behaviors), but not cognitive reappraisal (the cognitive re-evaluation of emotional events to change their emotional consequences), were associated with a lower level of overall face-memory accuracy and higher rates of misidentifications and false positives. Experiment 2 (N = 53) replicated these finding using a range of face-matching tasks, where observers were asked to match pairs of same-race or different-race face images taken on the same day or during different times. Once again, high levels of expressive suppression were associated with a lower level of overall face-matching performance and higher rates of false positives, but cognitive reappraisal did not correlate with any face-matching measure. Finally, Experiment 3 (N = 52) revealed that the higher use of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies, especially catastrophizing, was associated with lower levels of overall face-matching performances and higher rates of false positives. All told, the current research provides new evidence concerning the important associations between emotion and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M. Megreya
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of Education, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
- * E-mail:
| | - Robert D. Latzman
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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8
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Bate S, Mestry N, Atkinson M, Bennetts RJ, Hills PJ. Birthweight predicts individual differences in adult face recognition ability. Br J Psychol 2020; 112:628-644. [PMID: 33085082 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
It has long been known that premature birth and/or low birthweight can lead to general difficulties in cognitive and emotional functioning throughout childhood. However, the influence of these factors on more specific processes has seldom been addressed, despite their potential to account for wide individual differences in performance that often appear innate. Here, we examined the influence of gestation and birthweight on adults' face perception and face memory skills. Performance on both sub-processes was predicted by birthweight and birthweight-for-gestation, but not gestation alone. Evidence was also found for the domain-specificity of these effects: No perinatal measure correlated with performance on object perception or memory tasks, but they were related to the size of the face inversion effect on the perceptual test. This evidence indicates a novel, very early influence on individual differences in face recognition ability, which persists into adulthood, influences face-processing strategy itself, and may be domain-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bate
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Natalie Mestry
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | | | - Rachel J Bennetts
- College of Health and Life Sciences, Division of Psychology, Brunel University, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Peter J Hills
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
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9
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Fox E, Bindemann M. Individual differences in visual acuity and face matching ability. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily Fox
- School of Psychology, University of Kent Canterbury UK
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10
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Giannou K, Taylor JR, Lander K. Exploring the relationship between mindfulness, compassion and unfamiliar face identification. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1739693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyriaki Giannou
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, The University of Manchester, Manchester United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Jason R. Taylor
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, The University of Manchester, Manchester United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Karen Lander
- Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, The University of Manchester, Manchester United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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11
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Proverbio AM, Vanutelli ME, Viganò S. Remembering faces: The effects of emotional valence and temporal recency. Brain Cogn 2019; 135:103584. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2019.103584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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Giacomin M. Using social cognition to understand people's grandiose narcissism. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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13
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Lander K, Bruce V, Bindemann M. Use-inspired basic research on individual differences in face identification: implications for criminal investigation and security. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2018; 3:26. [PMID: 29984301 PMCID: PMC6021459 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-018-0115-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This journal is dedicated to "use-inspired basic research" where a problem in the world shapes the hypotheses for study in the laboratory. This review considers the role of individual variation in face identification and the challenges and opportunities this presents in security and criminal investigations. We show how theoretical work conducted on individual variation in face identification has, in part, been stimulated by situations presented in the real world. In turn, we review the contribution of theoretical work on individual variation in face processing and how this may help shape the practical identification of faces in applied situations. We consider two cases in detail. The first case is that of security officers; gatekeepers who use facial ID to grant entry or deny access. One applied example, where much research has been conducted, is passport control officers who are asked to match a person in front of them to a photograph shown on their ID. What happens if they are poor at making such face matching decisions and can they be trained to improve their performance? Second, we outline the case of "super-recognisers", people who are excellent at face recognition. Here it is interesting to consider whether these individuals can be strategically allocated to security and criminal roles, to maximise the identification of suspects. We conclude that individual differences are one of the largest documented sources of error in face matching and face recognition but more work is needed to account for these differences within theoretical models of face processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Lander
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL UK
| | - Vicki Bruce
- School of Psychology, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
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14
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Bruce V, Bindemann M, Lander K. Individual differences in face cognition: A commentary on Logie. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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15
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Bate S, Frowd C, Bennetts R, Hasshim N, Murray E, Bobak AK, Wills H, Richards S. Applied screening tests for the detection of superior face recognition. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2018; 3:22. [PMID: 30009252 PMCID: PMC6019417 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-018-0116-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years there has been growing interest in the identification of people with superior face recognition skills, for both theoretical and applied investigations. These individuals have mostly been identified via their performance on a single attempt at a tightly controlled test of face memory-the long form of the Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT+). The consistency of their skills over a range of tests, particularly those replicating more applied policing scenarios, has yet to be examined systematically. The current investigation screened 200 people who believed they have superior face recognition skills, using the CFMT+ and three new, more applied tests (measuring face memory, face matching and composite-face identification in a crowd). Of the sample, 59.5% showed at least some consistency in superior face recognition performance, although only five individuals outperformed controls on overall indices of target-present and target-absent trials. Only one participant outperformed controls on the Crowds test, suggesting that some applied face recognition tasks require very specific skills. In conclusion, future screening protocols need to be suitably thorough to test for consistency in performance, and to allow different types of superior performer to be detected from the outset. Screening for optimal performers may sometimes need to directly replicate the task in question, taking into account target-present and target-absent performance. Self-selection alone is not a reliable means of identifying those at the top end of the face recognition spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bate
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
| | - Charlie Frowd
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Rachel Bennetts
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London, London, UK
| | - Nabil Hasshim
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
| | - Ebony Murray
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
| | - Anna K. Bobak
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
| | - Harriet Wills
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
| | - Sarah Richards
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
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16
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McCaffery JM, Robertson DJ, Young AW, Burton AM. Individual differences in face identity processing. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2018; 3:21. [PMID: 30009251 PMCID: PMC6019420 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-018-0112-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the relationships between individual differences in different aspects of face-identity processing, using the Glasgow Face Matching Test (GFMT) as a measure of unfamiliar face perception, the Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT) as a measure of new face learning, and the Before They Were Famous task (BTWF) as a measure of familiar face recognition. These measures were integrated into two separate studies examining the relationship between face processing and other tasks. For Study 1 we gathered participants' subjective ratings of their own face perception abilities. In Study 2 we used additional measures of perceptual and cognitive abilities, and personality factors to place individual differences in a broader context. Performance was significantly correlated across the three face-identity tasks in both studies, suggesting some degree of commonality of underlying mechanisms. For Study 1 the participants' self-ratings correlated poorly with performance, reaching significance only for judgements of familiar face recognition. In Study 2 there were few associations between face tasks and other measures, with task-level influences seeming to account for the small number of associations present. In general, face tasks correlated with each other, but did not show an overall relation with other perceptual, cognitive or personality tests. Our findings are consistent with the existence of a general face-perception factor, able to account for around 25% of the variance in scores. However, other relatively task-specific influences are also clearly operating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M. McCaffery
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - David J. Robertson
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
- School of Psychological Sciences and Health, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Andrew W. Young
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - A. Mike Burton
- School of Psychology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD UK
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17
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Belanova E, Davis JP, Thompson T. Cognitive and neural markers of super-recognisers’ face processing superiority and enhanced cross-age effect. Cortex 2018; 108:92-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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18
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Royer J, Blais C, Charbonneau I, Déry K, Tardif J, Duchaine B, Gosselin F, Fiset D. Greater reliance on the eye region predicts better face recognition ability. Cognition 2018; 181:12-20. [PMID: 30103033 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Interest in using individual differences in face recognition ability to better understand the perceptual and cognitive mechanisms supporting face processing has grown substantially in recent years. The goal of this study was to determine how varying levels of face recognition ability are linked to changes in visual information extraction strategies in an identity recognition task. To address this question, fifty participants completed six tasks measuring face and object processing abilities. Using the Bubbles method (Gosselin & Schyns, 2001), we also measured each individual's use of visual information in face recognition. At the group level, our results replicate previous findings demonstrating the importance of the eye region for face identification. More importantly, we show that face processing ability is related to a systematic increase in the use of the eye area, especially the left eye from the observer's perspective. Indeed, our results suggest that the use of this region accounts for approximately 20% of the variance in face processing ability. These results support the idea that individual differences in face processing are at least partially related to the perceptual extraction strategy used during face identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Royer
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Caroline Blais
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Isabelle Charbonneau
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Karine Déry
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada
| | - Jessica Tardif
- Département de Psychologie, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Brad Duchaine
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, United States
| | | | - Daniel Fiset
- Département de Psychoéducation et de Psychologie, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Canada.
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19
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Bennetts RJ, Mole J, Bate S. Super-recognition in development: A case study of an adolescent with extraordinary face recognition skills. Cogn Neuropsychol 2017; 34:357-376. [PMID: 29165028 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2017.1402755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Face recognition abilities vary widely. While face recognition deficits have been reported in children, it is unclear whether superior face recognition skills can be encountered during development. This paper presents O.B., a 14-year-old female with extraordinary face recognition skills: a "super-recognizer" (SR). O.B. demonstrated exceptional face-processing skills across multiple tasks, with a level of performance that is comparable to adult SRs. Her superior abilities appear to be specific to face identity: She showed an exaggerated face inversion effect and her superior abilities did not extend to object processing or non-identity aspects of face recognition. Finally, an eye-movement task demonstrated that O.B. spent more time than controls examining the nose - a pattern previously reported in adult SRs. O.B. is therefore particularly skilled at extracting and using identity-specific facial cues, indicating that face and object recognition are dissociable during development, and that super recognition can be detected in adolescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel J Bennetts
- a School of Biological and Chemical Sciences , Queen Mary University of London , London , UK
| | - Joseph Mole
- b Oxford Doctoral Course in Clinical Psychology , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
| | - Sarah Bate
- c Department of Psychology , Bournemouth University , Poole , UK
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20
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Xu B, Liu-Shuang J, Rossion B, Tanaka J. Individual Differences in Face Identity Processing with Fast Periodic Visual Stimulation. J Cogn Neurosci 2017; 29:1368-1377. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
A growing body of literature suggests that human individuals differ in their ability to process face identity. These findings mainly stem from explicit behavioral tasks, such as the Cambridge Face Memory Test (CFMT). However, it remains an open question whether such individual differences can be found in the absence of an explicit face identity task and when faces have to be individualized at a single glance. In the current study, we tested 49 participants with a recently developed fast periodic visual stimulation (FPVS) paradigm [Liu-Shuang, J., Norcia, A. M., & Rossion, B. An objective index of individual face discrimination in the right occipitotemporal cortex by means of fast periodic oddball stimulation. Neuropsychologia, 52, 57–72, 2014] in EEG to rapidly, objectively, and implicitly quantify face identity processing. In the FPVS paradigm, one face identity (A) was presented at the frequency of 6 Hz, allowing only one gaze fixation, with different face identities (B, C, D) presented every fifth face (1.2 Hz; i.e., AAAABAAAACAAAAD…). Results showed a face individuation response at 1.2 Hz and its harmonics, peaking over occipitotemporal locations. The magnitude of this response showed high reliability across different recording sequences and was significant in all but two participants, with the magnitude and lateralization differing widely across participants. There was a modest but significant correlation between the individuation response amplitude and the performance of the behavioral CFMT task, despite the fact that CFMT and FPVS measured different aspects of face identity processing. Taken together, the current study highlights the FPVS approach as a promising means for studying individual differences in face identity processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bruno Rossion
- University of Louvain
- Centre Hospitalier Regional Universitaire de Nancy
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21
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Wilmer JB. Individual Differences in Face Recognition: A Decade of Discovery. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721417710693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Given the vital role face recognition plays in human social interaction, variations in this ability hold inherent interest and potential consequence. Yet the science of such differences has long lagged behind that of differences in other cognitive domains. In particular, although scattered case reports of catastrophic face-recognition deficits due to brain damage date back more than a century, for many decades, virtually no attention was paid to naturally occurring individual differences in face recognition. This past decade, in contrast, has seen a remarkable acceleration of research into these naturally occurring differences, spurred by the creation and validation of high-quality measures, open sharing of these measures, new options for remote testing, and a concerted move toward larger and more multivariate investigations. In this article, I recount six fundamental insights gained during the past decade about individual differences in face recognition—concerning their broad range, cognitive specificity, strong heritability, resilience to change, life-span trajectory, and practical relevance. Insights like these support a richer understanding of individual social experience and could enable more informed individual and institutional decision making.
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Abstract
Individuals vary in perceptual accuracy when categorising facial expressions, yet it is unclear how these individual differences in non-clinical population are related to cognitive processing stages at facial information acquisition and interpretation. We tested 104 healthy adults in a facial expression categorisation task, and correlated their categorisation accuracy with face-viewing gaze allocation and personal traits assessed with Autism Quotient, anxiety inventory and Self-Monitoring Scale. The gaze allocation had limited but emotion-specific impact on categorising expressions. Specifically, longer gaze at the eyes and nose regions were coupled with more accurate categorisation of disgust and sad expressions, respectively. Regarding trait measurements, higher autistic score was coupled with better recognition of sad but worse recognition of anger expressions, and contributed to categorisation bias towards sad expressions; whereas higher anxiety level was associated with greater categorisation accuracy across all expressions and with increased tendency of gazing at the nose region. It seems that both anxiety and autistic-like traits were associated with individual variation in expression categorisation, but this association is not necessarily mediated by variation in gaze allocation at expression-specific local facial regions. The results suggest that both facial information acquisition and interpretation capabilities contribute to individual differences in expression categorisation within non-clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Green
- a School of Psychology , University of Lincoln , Lincoln , UK
| | - Kun Guo
- a School of Psychology , University of Lincoln , Lincoln , UK
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23
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Turano MT, Viggiano MP. The relationship between face recognition ability and socioemotional functioning throughout adulthood. AGING NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2016; 24:613-630. [PMID: 27754777 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2016.1244247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between face recognition ability and socioemotional functioning has been widely explored. However, how aging modulates this association regarding both objective performance and subjective-perception is still neglected. Participants, aged between 18 and 81 years, performed a face memory test and completed subjective face recognition and socioemotional questionnaires. General and social anxiety, and neuroticism traits account for the individual variation in face recognition abilities during adulthood. Aging modulates these relationships because as they age, individuals that present a higher level of these traits also show low-level face recognition ability. Intriguingly, the association between depression and face recognition abilities is evident with increasing age. Overall, the present results emphasize the importance of embedding face metacognition measurement into the context of these studies and suggest that aging is an important factor to be considered, which seems to contribute to the relationship between socioemotional and face-cognitive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Turano
- a Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child's Health , University of Florence , Firenze , Italy
| | - Maria Pia Viggiano
- a Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research & Child's Health , University of Florence , Firenze , Italy
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24
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Devue C, Barsics C. Outlining face processing skills of portrait artists: Perceptual experience with faces predicts performance. Vision Res 2016; 127:92-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2016.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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25
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Bobak AK, Pampoulov P, Bate S. Detecting Superior Face Recognition Skills in a Large Sample of Young British Adults. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1378. [PMID: 27713706 PMCID: PMC5031595 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The Cambridge Face Memory Test Long Form (CFMT+) and Cambridge Face Perception Test (CFPT) are typically used to assess the face processing ability of individuals who believe they have superior face recognition skills. Previous large-scale studies have presented norms for the CFPT but not the CFMT+. However, previous research has also highlighted the necessity for establishing country-specific norms for these tests, indicating that norming data is required for both tests using young British adults. The current study addressed this issue in 254 British participants. In addition to providing the first norm for performance on the CFMT+ in any large sample, we also report the first UK specific cut-off for superior face recognition on the CFPT. Further analyses identified a small advantage for females on both tests, and only small associations between objective face recognition skills and self-report measures. A secondary aim of the study was to examine the relationship between trait or social anxiety and face processing ability, and no associations were noted. The implications of these findings for the classification of super-recognizers are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Bobak
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University Poole, UK
| | | | - Sarah Bate
- Department of Psychology, Bournemouth University Poole, UK
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26
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An in-depth cognitive examination of individuals with superior face recognition skills. Cortex 2016; 82:48-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Revised: 03/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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27
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Abstract
Over the last 20 years much attention in the field of face recognition has been directed towards the study of developmental prosopagnosia (DP), with some authors investigating the behavioural characteristics of the condition, and many others using these individuals to further our theoretical understanding of the typical face-processing system. It is broadly agreed that the term "DP" refers to people who have failed to develop the ability to recognize faces in the absence of neurological illness or injury, yet more precise terminology in relation to potential subtypes of the population are yet to be confirmed. Furthermore, specific diagnostic techniques and inclusion and exclusion criteria have yet to be uniformly accepted across the field, making cross-paper comparisons and meta-analyses very difficult. This paper presents an overview of the current challenges that face research into DP and introduces a series of papers that attempt to further our understanding of the condition's characteristics. It is hoped that this special issue will provide a springboard for further research addressing these issues, improving the current state of the art by ensuring the quality of theoretical investigations into DP, and by posing advances that will assist those who have the condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Bate
- a Department of Psychology , Bournemouth University , Poole , UK
| | - Jeremy J Tree
- b Department of Psychology , Swansea University , Swansea , UK
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Itz ML, Golle J, Luttmann S, Schweinberger SR, Kaufmann JM. Dominance of texture over shape in facial identity processing is modulated by individual abilities. Br J Psychol 2016; 108:369-396. [DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Revised: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marlena L. Itz
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
| | - Jessika Golle
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology; Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen; Germany
| | - Stefanie Luttmann
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
| | - Stefan R. Schweinberger
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
- DFG Research Unit Person Perception; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
| | - Jürgen M. Kaufmann
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
- DFG Research Unit Person Perception; Friedrich Schiller University of Jena; Germany
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29
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Abstract
It has been previously established that extraverts who are skilled at interpersonal interaction perform significantly better than introverts on a face-specific recognition memory task. In our experiment we further investigate the relationship between extraversion and face recognition, focusing on famous face recognition and face matching. Results indicate that more extraverted individuals perform significantly better on an upright famous face recognition task and show significantly larger face inversion effects. However, our results did not find an effect of extraversion on face matching or inverted famous face recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Lander
- a School of Psychological Sciences , University of Manchester , Manchester , UK
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30
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Allen-Walker L, Beaton AA. Empathy and perception of emotion in eyes from the FEEST/Ekman and Friesen faces. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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31
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Parsons CE, Young KS, Jegindø EME, Vuust P, Stein A, Kringelbach ML. Music training and empathy positively impact adults' sensitivity to infant distress. Front Psychol 2014; 5:1440. [PMID: 25566122 PMCID: PMC4271597 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Crying is the most powerful auditory signal of infant need. Adults' ability to perceive and respond to crying is important for infant survival and in the provision of care. This study investigated a number of listener variables that might impact on adults' perception of infant cry distress, namely parental status, musical training, and empathy. Sensitivity to infant distress was tested using a previously validated task, which experimentally manipulated distress by varying the pitch of infant cries. This task required that participants discriminate between pitch differences and interpret these as differences in infant distress. Parents with musical training showed a significant advantage on this task when compared with parents without. The extent of the advantage was correlated with the amount of self-reported musical training. For non-parents, individual differences in empathy were associated with task performance, with higher empathy scores corresponding to greater sensitivity to infant distress. We suggest that sensitivity to infant distress can be impacted by a number of listener variables, and may be amenable to training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E. Parsons
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Centre of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Katherine S. Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Centre of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Peter Vuust
- Centre of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Alan Stein
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Morten L. Kringelbach
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Centre of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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32
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Westerhof-Evers HJ, Visser-Keizer AC, McDonald S, Spikman JM. Performance of healthy subjects on an ecologically valid test for social cognition: the short, Dutch Version of The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT). J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2014; 36:1031-41. [PMID: 25380130 DOI: 10.1080/13803395.2014.966661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The present paper addresses the psychometric quality of the shortened Dutch version of The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT), a social cognition task comprising dynamic social interactions. Because the original TASIT required a rather long administration time, two shortened parallel forms were developed. Results showed that TASIT-short was feasible and that the two alternate forms were reasonably comparable in a group of neurologically healthy individuals (N = 98). Also, the results confirmed the ecological validity of TASIT-short in this healthy group. The test appeared sensitive to brain injury as it differentiated between the healthy subjects and a group of patients with acquired brain injury (N = 16). On the basis of the present study we conclude that TASIT-short has added value to the assessment of social cognition in patients with acquired brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herma J Westerhof-Evers
- a Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology , University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
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33
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Halliday DWR, MacDonald SWS, Sherf SK, Tanaka JW. A reciprocal model of face recognition and autistic traits: evidence from an individual differences perspective. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94013. [PMID: 24853862 PMCID: PMC4031083 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although not a core symptom of the disorder, individuals with autism often exhibit selective impairments in their face processing abilities. Importantly, the reciprocal connection between autistic traits and face perception has rarely been examined within the typically developing population. In this study, university participants from the social sciences, physical sciences, and humanities completed a battery of measures that assessed face, object and emotion recognition abilities, general perceptual-cognitive style, and sub-clinical autistic traits (the Autism Quotient (AQ)). We employed separate hierarchical multiple regression analyses to evaluate which factors could predict face recognition scores and AQ scores. Gender, object recognition performance, and AQ scores predicted face recognition behaviour. Specifically, males, individuals with more autistic traits, and those with lower object recognition scores performed more poorly on the face recognition test. Conversely, university major, gender and face recognition performance reliably predicted AQ scores. Science majors, males, and individuals with poor face recognition skills showed more autistic-like traits. These results suggest that the broader autism phenotype is associated with lower face recognition abilities, even among typically developing individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew W. R. Halliday
- University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- The Centre for Autism Research, Technology and Education, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Suzanne K. Sherf
- The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - James W. Tanaka
- University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- The Centre for Autism Research, Technology and Education, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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34
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Chen J. Face recognition as a predictor of social cognitive ability: Effects of emotion and race on face processing. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/ajsp.12041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqing Chen
- Department of Psychology; University of Toronto; Toronto Ontario Canada
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35
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Empathy towards individuals of the same and different ethnicity when depicted in negative and positive contexts. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2013.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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36
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Kaufmann JM, Schulz C, Schweinberger SR. High and low performers differ in the use of shape information for face recognition. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:1310-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2012] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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37
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Davis JM, McKone E, Dennett H, O'Connor KB, O'Kearney R, Palermo R. Individual differences in the ability to recognise facial identity are associated with social anxiety. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28800. [PMID: 22194916 PMCID: PMC3237502 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous research has been concerned with the relationship between social anxiety and the recognition of face expression but the question of whether there is a relationship between social anxiety and the recognition of face identity has been neglected. Here, we report the first evidence that social anxiety is associated with recognition of face identity, across the population range of individual differences in recognition abilities. Results showed poorer face identity recognition (on the Cambridge Face Memory Test) was correlated with a small but significant increase in social anxiety (Social Interaction Anxiety Scale) but not general anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory). The correlation was also independent of general visual memory (Cambridge Car Memory Test) and IQ. Theoretically, the correlation could arise because correct identification of people, typically achieved via faces, is important for successful social interactions, extending evidence that individuals with clinical-level deficits in face identity recognition (prosopagnosia) often report social stress due to their inability to recognise others. Equally, the relationship could arise if social anxiety causes reduced exposure or attention to people's faces, and thus to poor development of face recognition mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua M Davis
- The Department of Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
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38
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Barnard-Brak L. The difference between autism and ADHD is in the eye of the cognitive task? PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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39
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Petrides K, Mason M, Sevdalis N. Preliminary validation of the construct of trait social intelligence. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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40
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Perceiving performer identity and intended expression intensity in point-light displays of dance. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2010; 75:423-34. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-010-0312-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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41
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Smith FG, Jones BC, DeBruine LM. Individual differences in empathizing and systemizing predict variation in face preferences. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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