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Li H. To Know all is to Forgive all: The Effect of Foreign Experiences on Forgiveness. Psychol Rep 2024; 127:851-867. [PMID: 36121339 DOI: 10.1177/00332941221109111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
By going abroad, individuals get the opportunity to explore a new country and to immerse themselves in a new culture. Despite being personally and professionally rewarding, little is known about interpersonal attitudes and behavior change that accompany living abroad experiences. The current research examines whether foreign experiences influence forgiveness. Drawing on the Structure-Appraisal Model of Multicultural Experiences and literature examining the positive effect of foreign experiences on self-control related to the suppression of impulsive retaliation, we propose that international experiences lead to a greater tendency to forgive. As predicted, we found that foreign experiences correlated positively with forgiving motivations toward transgressors across different measures of forgiveness and diverse samples (Studies 1-2). Study three compared forgiveness of individuals who had lived abroad with forgiveness of individuals who had plans to live abroad but had not done so yet. We found consistent support for the hypothesis that living abroad has an impact on forgiveness. By employing an experimental design, Study four established the causal effect of international experiences on forgiveness. Taken together, these findings suggest that when individuals experience foreign cultures, they learn to understand interpersonal conflicts from different perspectives and show greater leniency and forgiveness toward transgressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Li
- Sichuan International Studies University, China
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2
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Li H, Yang B. Forgiving lark, resentful owl: Self-control mediates the relationship between chronotype and forgiveness. Chronobiol Int 2023:1-11. [PMID: 36847217 DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2023.2185151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
Considerable evidence shows that nocturnal chronotypes have increased odds of mental health problems, poor academic performance, and impairment in executive functions. Although the cognitive and health costs of evening-oriented preference are well-documented in the literature, little is known about its interpersonal costs. In this article, we propose that people with a preference for an evening chronotype show a lower tendency to forgive following an interpersonal offense because of their lower self-control ability. Three studies using independent samples and complementary measures reveal that morning-evening preference plays a role in the emergence of forgiveness, which provides support for our theoretical perspective. In Study 1, we found that evening-type students were less forgiving when responding to a transgression than morning-type students. Employing a longer measure of forgiveness and a more representative population, Study 2 replicated our initial findings and supported our hypothesis regarding the mediating role of self-control. To circumvent methodological issues associated with self-report data, Study 3 used a behavioral measure of forgiveness and revealed that chronotype can also predict actual forgiving behavior in a laboratory setting. Together, these findings suggest that diurnal preference towards eveningness not only imposes threats on people's health, but can also incur interpersonal costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Li
- Center for Linguistics, Literary & Cultural Studies, Sichuan International Studies University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bo Yang
- School of Foreign Languages, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
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3
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Associations between Hunger and Psychological Outcomes: A Large-Scale Ecological Momentary Assessment Study. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14235167. [PMID: 36501197 PMCID: PMC9736756 DOI: 10.3390/nu14235167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies assessing the association between hunger and psychological states have been conducted in laboratory settings, or limited to persons with eating disorders. In this study, 748 community-dwelling adults (56.4% women, 60.0 ± 9.3 years) completed the Ecological Momentary Assessment four times a day (08:00, 12:00, 16:00 and 20:00) for seven days. At each assessment, respondents indicated their current hunger level, food intake, and psychological states (sad, anxious, active, lively, distracted, anhedonic, angry, slow thinking and restless). Time-lagged associations assessing the effect of hunger on subsequent psychological states 4 h later and vice-versa were assessed. Hunger intensity increased subsequent active feeling (coefficient and 95% confidence interval: 0.029 (0.007; 0.051)) and lively feeling (0.019 (0.004; 0.034)) and decreased later slow thinking (-0.016 (-0.029; -0.003)). Previous eating increased later activity (0.116 (0.025; 0.208)). Feeling active (0.050 (0.036; 0.064)), lively (0.045 (0.023; 0.067)) and restless (0.040 (0.018; 0.063)) increased later hunger intensity, while distraction (-0.039 (-0.058; -0.019)) and slow thinking (-0.057 (-0.080; -0.034)) decreased it. No association was found between hunger, food intake and negative psychological states (sadness, anxiety and anger). Conclusions: Positive psychological states and hunger influence each other, while no association was found between hunger and negative psychological states.
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4
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Swami V, Hochstöger S, Kargl E, Stieger S. Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0269629. [PMID: 35793289 PMCID: PMC9258883 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0269629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The colloquial term “hangry” refers to the notion that people become angry when hungry, but very little research has directly determined the extent to which the relationship between hunger and negative emotions is robust. Here, we examined associations between everyday experiences of hunger and negative emotions using an experience sampling method. Sixty-four participants from Central Europe completed a 21-day experience sampling phase in which they reported their hunger, anger, irritability, pleasure, and arousal at five time-points each day (total = 9,142 responses). Results indicated that greater levels of self-reported hunger were associated with greater feelings of anger and irritability, and with lower pleasure. These findings remained significant after accounting for participant sex, age, body mass index, dietary behaviours, and trait anger. In contrast, associations with arousal were not significant. These results provide evidence that everyday levels of hunger are associated with negative emotionality and supports the notion of being “hangry”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viren Swami
- School of Psychology and Sport Science, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Centre for Psychological Medicine, Perdana University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Samantha Hochstöger
- Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - Erik Kargl
- Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - Stefan Stieger
- Department of Psychology and Psychodynamics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
- * E-mail:
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5
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Zheng W, Tao Y, Li Y, Ye H, Luo J. Effect of Modulating Activity in the Right DLPFC on Revenge Behavior: Evidence From a Noninvasive Brain Stimulation Investigation. Front Psychol 2021; 11:608205. [PMID: 33633628 PMCID: PMC7901952 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.608205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Revenge is common in our daily lives, and people feel good when engaging in revenge behavior. However, revenge behavior is a complex process and remains somewhat of a puzzle of human behavior. Neuroimaging studies have revealed that revenge behaviors are associated with activation of a neural network containing the anterior cingulate cortex, ventral striatum, inferior frontal gyrus, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Recent brain stimulation research using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation has shown a causal relationship between brain regions and revenge behaviors, but the findings have been mixed. In the present study, we aimed to study whether stimulation in the DLPFC can change participants' revenge behavior in conditions where participants' wealth was taken away in different ways. We adapted the moonlighting game and designed a new paradigm. Our study revealed that revenge behavior increased following activation in the right DLPFC, suggesting that the right DLPFC plays an important role in overriding self-interest and retaliation. In addition, our results revealed that the right DLPFC is crucial in revenge behavior related to the motivation of invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanjun Zheng
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China.,School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuanping Tao
- Department of Radiology, The Guangxing Hospital Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuzhen Li
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China.,School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hang Ye
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China.,School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jun Luo
- Center for Economic Behavior and Decision-Making, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China.,School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China
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6
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Liu H, Li H. Self-Control Modulates the Behavioral Response of Interpersonal Forgiveness. Front Psychol 2020; 11:472. [PMID: 32292367 PMCID: PMC7118213 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that forgiveness is associated with the ability of self-control. However, whether self-control can modulate interpersonal forgiveness remains unclear. In the current study, we aimed to explore the relationship between self-control and the process of forgiveness using a behavioral measure of forgiveness during which participants distributed money between themselves and unknown others who had previously treated them fairly or unfairly in an adapted decision-making task. Seventy-two participants with low or high self-control were recruited based on their scores on the self-control scale (SCS). Results showed that participants exhibited increased anger and decreased happiness after experiencing unfair treatment. Participants with high self-control distributed more money to opponents who previously treated them unfairly compared with those with low self-control, whereas no such difference was observed to opponents who previously treated them fairly between the two groups. A significantly positive correlation was also found between the forgiveness rates and participants’ self-control scores. These findings suggest that self-control modulates interpersonal forgiveness responses. Individuals with high self-control expressed an increased prosocial response toward people who previously offended them, which is similar to the process of forgiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Liu
- Department of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Haijiang Li
- Department of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China
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7
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Lee YR, Enright RD. A meta-analysis of the association between forgiveness of others and physical health. Psychol Health 2019; 34:626-643. [PMID: 30669877 DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2018.1554185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This meta-analysis tested the relation between forgiveness of others and physical health (PH) with age, gender, race, education level, employment status, sample type, research design, type of PH variables, and publication status as the potential moderators. DESIGN Eligible studies had participants with or without physical or mental health problems and had quantitative data on forgiveness of others and PH. The random-effects model was used to aggregate Fisher's z effect sizes, which were converted back to correlation coefficients. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES State forgiveness (forgiving an offense or offender) measures, trait forgiveness (a disposition to forgive) measures and physical health measures were included in the meta-analysis. RESULTS A hundred and twenty-eight studies (N = 58,531) were retrieved, in which the mean effect sizes showed a significant positive relationship between forgiveness of others and PH (r = 0.14, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.11, 0.17]). Further, no moderators showed a significant relation between forgiveness of others and PH. CONCLUSIONS The positive relation between forgiveness of others and PH was not affected by potential moderators. Because the results are correlational, more forgiveness interventions may be needed to examine the causal effect of the relation between forgiveness of others and PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Rim Lee
- a Department of Teacher Education , Konkuk University , Seoul , Korea.,b Department of Education , Kookmin University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Robert D Enright
- c Department of Educational Psychology , University of Wisconsin-Madison , Madison , WI , USA.,d International Forgiveness Institute, Inc. , Madison , Wisconsin , USA
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8
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Van Tongeren DR, DeWall CN, Green JD, Cairo AH, Davis DE, Hook JN. Self-Regulation Facilitates Meaning in Life. REVIEW OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Meaning is a central feature of human life. Our overarching proposition is that self-regulation helps facilitate meaning in life. We propose that purposeful, effortful, and directive actions that regulate selfish impulses are necessary to continually develop a sense of meaning in life. We explain how self-regulatory processes map onto this process: the drive for meaning is governed by internalized standards of meaning, people monitor their experiences to ensure a fit between their experiences and standards of meaning, and strength is required for deliberative behaviors aimed at reaffirming and regaining meaning. Moreover, we outline various self-regulatory pathways to gain meaning via coherence, significance, and purpose. Finally, we suggest various ways to test and expand our model and hypotheses.
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9
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Ysseldyk R, Matheson K, Anisman H. Revenge is sour, but is forgiveness sweet? Psychological health and cortisol reactivity among women with experiences of abuse. J Health Psychol 2017; 24:2003-2021. [PMID: 28810479 DOI: 10.1177/1359105317714319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the relations among women's experiences of abuse, forgiveness, revenge, psychological health, and physiological stress reactivity. Both dispositional (Study 1; N = 103) and state (Study 2; N = 258) forgiveness and vengeance were associated with psychological symptoms. However, the relation between revenge and greater depression was magnified among psychologically abused women, whereas-unexpectedly-the positive link between forgiveness and psychological health was strengthened among physically abused women. Moreover, while revenge coincided with increased cortisol reactivity following any relationship conflict, this was only evident for forgiveness following physical abuse. The complex interactions among these variables are discussed within a stress and coping framework.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kimberly Matheson
- Carleton University, Canada.,The Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Canada
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10
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Struthers CW, van Monsjou E, Ayoub M, Guilfoyle JR. Fit to Forgive: Effect of Mode of Exercise on Capacity to Override Grudges and Forgiveness. Front Psychol 2017; 8:538. [PMID: 28533758 PMCID: PMC5420563 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Forgiveness is important for repairing relationships that have been damaged by transgressions. In this research we explored the notion that the mode of physical exercise that victims of transgressions engage in and their capacity to override grudges are important in the process of forgiveness. Two exploratory studies that varied in samples (community non-student adults, undergraduate students) and research methods (non-experimental, experimental) were used to test these predictions. Findings showed that, compared to anaerobic or no exercise, aerobic and flexibility exercise facilitated self-control over grudges and forgiveness (Studies 1 and 2), and self-control over grudges explained the relation between exercise and forgiveness (Study 2). Possible mechanisms for future research are discussed.
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11
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Glucose metabolism and self-regulation — Is insulin resistance a valid proxy of self-control? PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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12
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Xu H, Bègue L, Sauve L, Bushman BJ. Sweetened blood sweetens behavior. Ego depletion, glucose, guilt, and prosocial behavior. Appetite 2014; 81:8-11. [PMID: 24882450 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2014.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although guilt feels bad to the individual, it is good for society because guilty feelings can prompt people to perform good deeds. Previous research shows that fatigue decreases guilty feelings and helpful behavior. This present research tests whether glucose restores guilty feelings and increases helpful behavior. Depleted participants watched a movie about butchering animals for their meat or skin and were told to express no emotions, whereas non-depleted participants watched the same movie, but could express their emotions. Afterwards they drank a glucose or placebo beverage. Having participants play a game in which another person was punished for their errors induced guilt. Finally, participants played a dictator game in which they could leave lottery tickets for the next participant. Depleted participants felt less guilty and helped less than non-depleted participants, and those who consumed a placebo beverage felt less guilt and helped less than those who consumed a glucose beverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyi Xu
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Laurent Bègue
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Laure Sauve
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Psychologie, University of Grenoble 2, UFR SHS, 1251 avenue Centrale, BP 47, 38040, Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Brad J Bushman
- School of Communication and the Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 3016 Derby Hall, 154 N Oval Mall, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Communication Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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13
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Noreen S, Bierman RN, MacLeod MD. Forgiving You Is Hard, but Forgetting Seems Easy. Psychol Sci 2014; 25:1295-302. [DOI: 10.1177/0956797614531602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Forgiveness is considered to play a key role in the maintenance of social relationships, the avoidance of unnecessary conflict, and the ability to move forward with one’s life. But why is it that some people find it easier to forgive and forget than others? In the current study, we explored the supposed relationship between forgiveness and forgetting. In an initial session, 30 participants imagined that they were the victim in a series of hypothetical incidents and indicated whether or not they would forgive the transgressor. Following a standard think/no-think procedure, in which participants were trained to think or not to think about some of these incidents, more forgetting was observed for incidents that had been forgiven following no-think instructions compared with either think or baseline instructions. In contrast, no such forgetting effects emerged for incidents that had not previously been forgiven. These findings have implications for goal-directed forgetting and the relationship between forgiveness and memory.
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Burnette JL, Davisson EK, Finkel EJ, Van Tongeren DR, Hui CM, Hoyle RH. Self-Control and Forgiveness. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550613502991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In the 12 years since scholars first investigated the link between self-control and forgiveness (Finkel & Campbell, 2001), the literature investigating this relation has grown rapidly. The present article reports a meta-analytic review of this link across 40 independent samples and 5,105 independent observations. In addition, it investigates an array of potential moderators. Results revealed that the overall link between self-control and forgiveness is statistically robust and small to moderate in magnitude ( r = .18). Consistent with the prevailing theoretical models, this link is stronger when forgiveness is assessed in terms of low vengeance (resisting retaliation: r = .31) rather than in terms of high benevolence (fostering prosociality: r = .16). Discussion focuses on the potentially crucial role of forgiveness, especially vengeance inhibition, in linking self-control to relationship well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeni L. Burnette
- Psychology Department, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, USA
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Abstract
McCullough et al. argue that revenge has a future-oriented function, that is, to deter future harms by changing other individuals’ incentives toward the self. Recent research has shown that people seek revenge even when harms are unintentional. This commentary reports these results and proposes that revenge may also serve to reduce the immediate psychological pain resulting from unfair treatment.
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Burkley E, Anderson D, Curtis J. You Wore Me Down: Self-Control Strength and Social Influence. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00367.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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