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Gonthier C. Should Intelligence Tests Be Speeded or Unspeeded? A Brief Review of the Effects of Time Pressure on Response Processes and an Experimental Study with Raven's Matrices. J Intell 2023; 11:120. [PMID: 37367521 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11060120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Intelligence tests are often performed under time constraints for practical reasons, but the effects of time pressure on reasoning performance are poorly understood. The first part of this work provides a brief review of major expected effects of time pressure, which includes forcing participants to skip items, convoking a mental speed factor, constraining response times, qualitatively altering cognitive processing, affecting anxiety and motivation, and interacting with individual differences. The second part presents data collected with Raven's matrices under three conditions of speededness to provide further insight into the complex effects of time pressure, with three major findings. First, even mild time pressure (with enough time available for all participants to complete the task at a leisurely pace) induced speeding throughout the whole task, starting with the very first item, and participants sped up more than was actually required. Second, time pressure came with lower confidence and poorer strategy use and a substantial decrease of accuracy (d = 0.35), even when controlling for response time at the item level-indicating a detrimental effect on cognitive processing beyond speeding. Third, time pressure disproportionately reduced response times for difficult items and participants with high ability, working memory capacity, or need for cognition, although this did not differentially affect ability estimates. Overall, both the review and empirical sections show that the effects of time pressure go well beyond forcing participants to speed or skip the last few items and make even mild time constraints inadvisable when attempting to measure maximal performance, especially for high-performing samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corentin Gonthier
- Nantes Université, Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL UR 4638), Chemin de la Censive du Tertre, 44312 Nantes, France
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Schubert AL, Löffler C, Sadus K, Göttmann J, Hein J, Schröer P, Teuber A, Hagemann D. Working memory load affects intelligence test performance by reducing the strength of relational item bindings and impairing the filtering of irrelevant information. Cognition 2023; 236:105438. [PMID: 37058828 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
There is a broad consensus that individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) are strongly related to individual differences in intelligence. However, correlational studies do not allow conclusions about the causal nature of the relationship between WMC and fluid intelligence. While research on the cognitive basis of intelligence typically assumes that simpler lower-level cognitive processes contribute to individual differences in higher-order reasoning processes, a reversed causality or a third variable giving rise to two intrinsically uncorrelated variables may exist. In two studies (n1 = 65, n2 = 113), we investigated the causal nature of the relationship between WMC and intelligence by assessing the experimental effect of working memory load on intelligence test performance. Moreover, we tested if the effect of working memory load on intelligence test performance increased under time constraints, as previous studies have shown that the association between the two constructs increases if intelligence tests are administered with a strict time limit. We show that working memory load impaired intelligence test performance, but that this experimental effect was not affected by time constraints, which suggests that the experimental manipulations of working memory capacity and processing time did not affect the same underlying cognitive process. Using a computational modeling approach, we demonstrated that external memory load affected both the building and maintenance of relational item bindings and the filtering of irrelevant information in working memory. Our results confirm that WMC causally contributes to higher-order reasoning processes. Moreover, they support the hypothesis that working memory capacity in general and the abilities to maintain arbitrary bindings and to disengage from irrelevant information in particular are intrinsically related to intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christoph Löffler
- Department of Psychology, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Sadus
- Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan Göttmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany; Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johanna Hein
- Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Pauline Schröer
- Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Antonia Teuber
- Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Dirk Hagemann
- Institute of Psychology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
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Hagemann D, Ihmels M, Bast N, Neubauer AB, Schankin A, Schubert AL. Fluid Intelligence Is (Much) More than Working Memory Capacity: An Experimental Analysis. J Intell 2023; 11:jintelligence11040070. [PMID: 37103255 PMCID: PMC10141465 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11040070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Empirical evidence suggests a great positive association between measures of fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, which implied to some researchers that fluid intelligence is little more than working memory. Because this conclusion is mostly based on correlation analysis, a causal relationship between fluid intelligence and working memory has not yet been established. The aim of the present study was therefore to provide an experimental analysis of this relationship. In a first study, 60 participants worked on items of the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) while simultaneously engaging in one of four secondary tasks to load specific components of the working memory system. There was a diminishing effect of loading the central executive on the APM performance, which could explain 15% of the variance in the APM score. In a second study, we used the same experimental manipulations but replaced the dependent variable with complex working memory span tasks from three different domains. There was also a diminishing effect of the experimental manipulation on span task performance, which could now explain 40% of the variance. These findings suggest a causal effect of working memory functioning on fluid intelligence test performance, but they also imply that factors other than working memory functioning must contribute to fluid intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Hagemann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Max Ihmels
- Department of Psychology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nico Bast
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe-University, 60590 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andreas B. Neubauer
- Department of Education and Human Development, DIPF Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, 60323 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Andrea Schankin
- Institute of Business Psychology, FOM University of Applied Sciences, 45127 Essen, Germany
- TECO/Pervasive Computing Systems, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76185 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Classification of attention levels using a Random Forest algorithm optimized with Particle Swarm Optimization. EVOLVING SYSTEMS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12530-022-09444-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Sofologi M, Pliogou V, Bonti E, Efstratopoulou M, Kougioumtzis GA, Papatzikis E, Ntritsos G, Moraitou D, Papantoniou G. An Investigation of Working Memory Profile and Fluid Intelligence in Children With Neurodevelopmental Difficulties. Front Psychol 2022; 12:773732. [PMID: 35370868 PMCID: PMC8973915 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.773732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aims to evaluate the distinct patterns of working memory (WM) capacity of children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), High-functioning children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and children with Down syndrome (DS). More specifically, the current study investigates the complex relationship of fluid intelligence and WM between 39 children with DLD, 20 H igh-functioning children with ASD, and 15 children with DS. All children were evaluated in different measures of Phonological Working Memory, Visual-spatial Working Memory whereas Fluid Intelligence was measured with Raven Progressive Matrices. The result analysis revealed a significant difference among the three groups, both among each function separately and the correlations among them, as well. The results revealed that the DLD groups and High-functioning ASD group exhibited a common picture or an overlap of performances in all Phonological and Visuo-spatial working memory measures, except Backward Digit Recall task. As for the DS group research findings revealed different and unique working memory patterns in comparison to DLD group and High-functioning ASD. Their differences have been studied and further conclusions have been drawn about the different patterns of working memory among the three clinical groups. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of support for learning. The common profile that characterize the two developmental conditions and the distinct pattern of working memory performance in DS group underlies the need for further research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Sofologi
- Laboratory of Psychology, Department of Early Childhood Education, School of Education, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, University Research Centre of Ioannina (URCI), Ioannina, Greece
| | - Vassiliki Pliogou
- Department of Early Childhood Education, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece
| | - Eleni Bonti
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
- Department of Education, School of Education, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
- Department of Special Education (CEDU), United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Maria Efstratopoulou
- Department of Special Education (CEDU), United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Georgios A. Kougioumtzis
- Department of Turkish and Modern Asian Studies, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Efthymios Papatzikis
- Department of Early Childhood Education and Care, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Georgios Ntritsos
- Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, School of Informatics and Telecommunications, University of Ioannina, Arta, Greece
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
| | - Despina Moraitou
- Laboratory of Psychology, Section of Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, School of Psychology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Georgia Papantoniou
- Laboratory of Psychology, Department of Early Childhood Education, School of Education, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
- Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences, University Research Centre of Ioannina (URCI), Ioannina, Greece
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), Balkan Center, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Strategy use moderates the relation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence: A combined approach. INTELLIGENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2022.101627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Guignard JH, Bacro F, Guimard P. School life satisfaction and peer connectedness of intellectually gifted adolescents in France: Is there a labeling effect? New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2021; 2021:59-74. [PMID: 34936184 DOI: 10.1002/cad.20448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Intellectual giftedness is commonly associated with a high level of intellectual functioning, an identification process whereby individuals are labeled as gifted, and adjustments in schools such as grade skipping. During adolescence, all these factors are prone to reduce peer connectedness and school life satisfaction. The aim of the present study was to disentangle the effects of these factors in a sample of 492 sixth and 10th graders. We identified three subsamples based on different characteristics associated with giftedness: students previously identified as gifted (n = 66), students who scored in the top 10% on a general intelligence test (n = 49), and students who had skipped a grade (n = 57). Comparative analysis showed that none of these subsamples differed from their respective control groups on school life satisfaction. Students labeled as gifted reported a lower level of peer connectedness, and the latter's contribution to school life satisfaction was significantly stronger within this subsample. These results underscore the importance of social integration for adolescents identified as intellectually gifted and exclude grade skipping as a risk factor. Moreover, high intellectual level does not seem to impact either school life satisfaction or peer connectedness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques-Henri Guignard
- Laboratoire Bien-être et Processus de Subjectivation (BepsyLab) & Centre de Recherche en Education de Nantes (CREN, EA2651), Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Fabien Bacro
- Centre de Recherche en Education de Nantes (CREN, EA2651), Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Philippe Guimard
- Centre de Recherche en Education de Nantes (CREN, EA2651), Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
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Stark GF, Avery EW, Rosenberg MD, Greene AS, Gao S, Scheinost D, Todd Constable R, Chun MM, Yoo K. Using functional connectivity models to characterize relationships between working and episodic memory. Brain Behav 2021; 11:e02105. [PMID: 34142458 PMCID: PMC8413720 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Working memory is a critical cognitive ability that affects our daily functioning and relates to many cognitive processes and clinical conditions. Episodic memory is vital because it enables individuals to form and maintain their self-identities. Our study analyzes the extent to which whole-brain functional connectivity observed during completion of an N-back memory task, a common measure of working memory, can predict both working memory and episodic memory. METHODS We used connectome-based predictive models (CPMs) to predict 502 Human Connectome Project (HCP) participants' in-scanner 2-back memory test scores and out-of-scanner working memory test (List Sorting) and episodic memory test (Picture Sequence and Penn Word) scores based on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data collected both during rest and N-back task performance. We also analyzed the functional brain connections that contributed to prediction for each of these models. RESULTS Functional connectivity observed during N-back task performance predicted out-of-scanner List Sorting scores and to a lesser extent out-of-scanner Picture Sequence scores, but did not predict out-of-scanner Penn Word scores. Additionally, the functional connections predicting 2-back scores overlapped to a greater degree with those predicting List Sorting scores than with those predicting Picture Sequence or Penn Word scores. Functional connections with the insula, including connections between insular and parietal regions, predicted scores across the 2-back, List Sorting, and Picture Sequence tasks. CONCLUSIONS Our findings validate functional connectivity observed during the N-back task as a measure of working memory, which generalizes to predict episodic memory to a lesser extent. By building on our understanding of the predictive power of N-back task functional connectivity, this work enhances our knowledge of relationships between working memory and episodic memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gigi F Stark
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Emily W Avery
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Monica D Rosenberg
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Abigail S Greene
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Siyuan Gao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Dustin Scheinost
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - R Todd Constable
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Marvin M Chun
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kwangsun Yoo
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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Murphy K, Creux O. Examining the association between media multitasking, and performance on working memory and inhibition tasks. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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10
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Waschl N, Burns NR. Sex differences in inductive reasoning: A research synthesis using meta-analytic techniques. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.109959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Bosen AK, Barry MF. Serial Recall Predicts Vocoded Sentence Recognition Across Spectral Resolutions. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2020; 63:1282-1298. [PMID: 32213149 PMCID: PMC7242981 DOI: 10.1044/2020_jslhr-19-00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The goal of this study was to determine how various aspects of cognition predict speech recognition ability across different levels of speech vocoding within a single group of listeners. Method We tested the ability of young adults (N = 32) with normal hearing to recognize Perceptually Robust English Sentence Test Open-set (PRESTO) sentences that were degraded with a vocoder to produce different levels of spectral resolution (16, eight, and four carrier channels). Participants also completed tests of cognition (fluid intelligence, short-term memory, and attention), which were used as predictors of sentence recognition. Sentence recognition was compared across vocoder conditions, predictors were correlated with individual differences in sentence recognition, and the relationships between predictors were characterized. Results PRESTO sentence recognition performance declined with a decreasing number of vocoder channels, with no evident floor or ceiling performance in any condition. Individual ability to recognize PRESTO sentences was consistent relative to the group across vocoder conditions. Short-term memory, as measured with serial recall, was a moderate predictor of sentence recognition (ρ = 0.65). Serial recall performance was constant across vocoder conditions when measured with a digit span task. Fluid intelligence was marginally correlated with serial recall, but not sentence recognition. Attentional measures had no discernible relationship to sentence recognition and a marginal relationship with serial recall. Conclusions Verbal serial recall is a substantial predictor of vocoded sentence recognition, and this predictive relationship is independent of spectral resolution. In populations that show variable speech recognition outcomes, such as listeners with cochlear implants, it should be possible to account for the independent effects of spectral resolution and verbal serial recall in their speech recognition ability. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12021051.
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Euler MJ. Intelligence and uncertainty: Implications of hierarchical predictive processing for the neuroscience of cognitive ability. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 94:93-112. [PMID: 30153441 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Hierarchical predictive processing (PP) has recently emerged as a candidate theoretical paradigm for neurobehavioral research. To date, PP has found support through its success in offering compelling explanations for a number of perceptual, cognitive, and psychiatric phenomena, as well as from accumulating neurophysiological evidence. However, its implications for understanding intelligence and its neural basis have received relatively little attention. The present review outlines the key tenets and evidence for PP, and assesses its implications for intelligence research. It is argued that PP suggests indeterminacy as a unifying principle from which to investigate the cognitive hierarchy and brain-ability correlations. The resulting framework not only accommodates prominent psychometric models of intelligence, but also incorporates key findings from neuroanatomical and functional activation research, and motivates new predictions via the mechanisms of prediction-error minimization. Because PP also suggests unique neural signatures of experience-dependent activity, it may also help clarify environmental contributions to intellectual development. It is concluded that PP represents a plausible, integrative framework that could enhance progress in the neuroscience of intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Euler
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, 380 S. 1530 E. Rm. 502, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
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Ren X, Wang T, Sun S, Deng M, Schweizer K. Speeded testing in the assessment of intelligence gives rise to a speed factor. INTELLIGENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Shipstead Z, Harrison TL, Engle RW. Working Memory Capacity and Fluid Intelligence: Maintenance and Disengagement. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2017; 11:771-799. [PMID: 27899724 DOI: 10.1177/1745691616650647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence have been demonstrated to be strongly correlated traits. Typically, high working memory capacity is believed to facilitate reasoning through accurate maintenance of relevant information. In this article, we present a proposal reframing this issue, such that tests of working memory capacity and fluid intelligence are seen as measuring complementary processes that facilitate complex cognition. Respectively, these are the ability to maintain access to critical information and the ability to disengage from or block outdated information. In the realm of problem solving, high working memory capacity allows a person to represent and maintain a problem accurately and stably, so that hypothesis testing can be conducted. However, as hypotheses are disproven or become untenable, disengaging from outdated problem solving attempts becomes important so that new hypotheses can be generated and tested. From this perspective, the strong correlation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence is due not to one ability having a causal influence on the other but to separate attention-demanding mental functions that can be contrary to one another but are organized around top-down processing goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Shipstead
- Department of Social and Behavior Sciences, Arizona State University
| | - Tyler L Harrison
- Attention and Working Memory Lab, Georgia Institute of Technology
| | - Randall W Engle
- Attention and Working Memory Lab, Georgia Institute of Technology
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Estrada E, Román FJ, Abad FJ, Colom R. Separating power and speed components of standardized intelligence measures. INTELLIGENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Paul EJ, Larsen RJ, Nikolaidis A, Ward N, Hillman CH, Cohen NJ, Kramer AF, Barbey AK. Dissociable brain biomarkers of fluid intelligence. Neuroimage 2016; 137:201-211. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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Chuderski A. The broad factor of working memory is virtually isomorphic to fluid intelligence tested under time pressure. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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