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Esteban-Mendoza MV, Arcila-Quiceno VH, Ríos Chacón C, Jaimes Dueñez JE, Tique Oviedo M, Díaz Bustos A, Castellanos MF, Morchón R. Microfilaremic infection in canine filariosis in Colombia: a challenge in morphological and molecular diagnostics. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1368307. [PMID: 38601908 PMCID: PMC11005679 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1368307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Canine filariosis is caused by filiform nematodes and affects several species of animals as well as humans. The disease produces a wide range of symptoms that can often be confused with other diseases, which increases the complexity of its diagnosis. The search for methodologies to facilitate its diagnosis is a challenge, and specific and differential identification of the parasite species causing the disease holds key to a successful diagnosis. In Colombia, there is a problem of underdiagnosis of filariosis in microfilaremic dogs infected by Dirofilaria immitis and Acanthocheilonema reconditum, and of microfilaremias not related to heartworm disease. The highest prevalences have been reported for D. immitis infections, although new cases of A. reconditum infections are beginning to appear. The aim of this study was to differentiate the microfilariae infections caused by D. immitis and A. reconditum by a morphological and molecular characterization of microfilariae so as to facilitate an accurate diagnosis of canine filariosis in the metropolitan area of Bucaramanga (Colombia). For this purpose, 400 blood samples with anticoagulants were collected from the dogs and analyzed with the help of a commercial immunochromatography kit for the detection of D. immitis circulating antigen. The Woo, Knott, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques were employed for determining the parasite count, morphological observation, and molecular identification of microfilariae present in the dogs respectively. The prevalence of microfilaremic dogs in Bucaramanga metropolitan area was 18.75% (75/400). The prevalence of dogs that tested positive for D. immitis in the antigen and in PCR tests was 1.25% (5/400) and 1% (4/400), respectively. Furthermore, the PCR test revealed that 17.75% of the microfilaremic dogs tested positive for A. reconditum (71/400) (first report in the metropolitan area of Bucaramanga), with one animal co-infected by both species, and 0% for D. repens (0/400). However, by morphological characterization, 4% of the microfilariae (3/75) corresponded to D. immitis, 20% (15/75) to D. repens, and 76% (57/75) to A. reconditum. The use of molecular diagnostic methods such as PCR aids in the specific identification of the parasite, thus making it a more accurate method than the morphological characterization of microfilariae. The identification of the parasites by PCR helps improve the veterinary diagnosis of canine filariosis in Colombia, which would lead to the establishment of an appropriate treatment protocol for each species of filaria and also to the generation of reliable data to be used at the clinical and epidemiological levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Victoria Esteban-Mendoza
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
- Biovet Diagnóstico Veterinario Bga, Laboratorio Clínico Veterinario, Floridablanca, Santander, Colombia
| | - Victor Hernán Arcila-Quiceno
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
| | - Catalina Ríos Chacón
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
- Biovet Diagnóstico Veterinario Bga, Laboratorio Clínico Veterinario, Floridablanca, Santander, Colombia
| | - Jeiczon Elim Jaimes Dueñez
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
| | - Marisol Tique Oviedo
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
| | - Alejandro Díaz Bustos
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
- Biovet Diagnóstico Veterinario Bga, Laboratorio Clínico Veterinario, Floridablanca, Santander, Colombia
| | - María Fernanda Castellanos
- Grupo GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Maestría en Salud y Producción Animal, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia
- Biovet Diagnóstico Veterinario Bga, Laboratorio Clínico Veterinario, Floridablanca, Santander, Colombia
| | - Rodrigo Morchón
- Zoonotic Diseases and One Health GIR, Biomedical Research Institute of Salamanca-Research Center for Tropical Diseases University of Salamanca (IBSAL), Faculty of Pharmacy, Campus Miguel Unamuno, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
- Centre for Environmental Studies and Rural Dynamization (CEADIR), University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
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Gruntmeir J, Kelly M, Ramos RAN, Verocai GG. Cutaneous filarioid nematodes of dogs in the United States: Are they emerging, neglected, or underdiagnosed parasites? Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1128611. [PMID: 36908516 PMCID: PMC9995907 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1128611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Filarioid nematodes, which are vector-borne parasites of cosmopolitan distribution, of dogs are medically important. They are represented by species in which microfilariae were found to be circulating in the bloodstream (e.g., Dirofilaria sp., Acanthocheilonema sp., and Brugia sp.) or skin-dwelling (e.g., Cercopithifilaria sp. and Onchocerca sp.). Those species whose microfilariae are detected in blood have been extensively studied, especially Dirofilaria immitis, due to their clinical importance. In recent decades, there has been an increased interest by the scientific community in filarioid nematodes whose microfilariae are detected in the skin because of the zoonotic aspect of Onchocerca lupi. In the United States (US), although D. immitis has been considered the main filarioid infecting dogs, the intense animal movement and global canine filarioid diversity may indicate that the likely presence of cutaneous filarioid nematodes is more common than previously expected. Hence, a question remains: Are these canine filarioid nematodes emerging, neglected, or simply underdiagnosed in the US? In this review, we provide an overview of pertinent information that briefly summarizes the biology of the different canine filarioid nematode species, clinical signs associated with infections, and currently available diagnostic tools using molecular and microscopy-based methods and highlight knowledge gaps where research and surveillance efforts remain necessary. The data herein presented serve as an alert to the scientific community about the importance of filarioid nematodes infecting dogs other than D. immitis. Additionally, the zoonotic potential of several filarioid species reinforces the necessity of a proper diagnosis and the need for broader surveillance to understand their diversity and distribution, to highlight the potential introduction of certain species, and mitigate their establishment in the country and new animal and human cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff Gruntmeir
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.,Southeastern Center of Excellence in Vector Borne Diseases, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Maureen Kelly
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | | | - Guilherme Gomes Verocai
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Biological Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
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Lane JN, Litster A, Little SE, Rodriguez JY, Mwacalimba KK, Sundstrom KD, Amirian ES, Guerios SD, Serrano MA, Hays KM, Levy JK. Optimizing heartworm diagnosis in dogs using multiple test combinations. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:224. [PMID: 33902687 PMCID: PMC8074442 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04715-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Various heartworm (HW) diagnostic testing modalities detect products of, or reactions to, different life cycle stages of Dirofilaria immitis. Microfilariae (Mf) can be directly visualized in blood, antigen (Ag) from immature and adult heartworms may be detected on commercial assays, and antibody (Ab) tests detect the host immune response to larval stages. Ag and Mf tests are commonly used in dogs, which frequently carry adult HW infections, but Ab tests have only been validated for use in cats. In some HW-infected dogs, Ag is blocked by immune complexing leading to false-negative results. Heat-treatment (HT) to disrupt these complexes can increase the sensitivity of HW Ag tests. The aim of this study was to compare different methods for diagnosing HW infection in dogs at high risk using individual and paired diagnostic tests, including an exploration of using Ab tests designed for cats to test canine samples. Methods One hundred stray adult (≥ 2-year-old) dogs in Florida shelters were tested using Mf, HW Ag, and HW Ab tests (feline HW Ab tests currently not commercially validated/approved for use in dogs); two versions of each test platform were used. Results Fourteen dogs tested positive using point-of-care (POC) Ag tests; an additional 2 dogs tested positive with microtiter well assay, and an additional 12 dogs tested positive using HT Ag testing. For individual tests, Ag test sensitivity/specificity compared to HT Ag was 50–57%/100%, and Ab tests were 46–64%/82–94%. Sensitivity estimates for individual tests were higher when comparing to non-HT Ag. Pairing POC Ag tests with Mf tests improved sensitivity without loss of specificity, while pairing POC Ag and Ab tests modestly increased sensitivity at the expense of specificity. Conclusions Screening dogs for HW infection using both POC Ag and Mf detection, which is recommended by the American Heartworm Society, improved diagnostic performance in this study compared to single Ag test use, but may have missed more than one in four infected dogs. The need to improve access to highly accurate, rapid, and inexpensive large-scale HW testing for dogs in animal shelters remains largely unmet by current testing availability. The development of practical and validated protocols that incorporate heat or chemical treatment to disrupt Ag-Ab complexes in POC testing or decreasing the cost and time required for such testing in reference laboratories might provide solutions to this unmet need. Similar studies performed in countries where the prevalence of parasites such as D. repens or A. vasorum is different to the USA could potentially yield very different positive predictive values for both HT and non-HT Ag tests. Graphic abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N Lane
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | | | - Susan E Little
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, 250 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | | | | | - Kellee D Sundstrom
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, 250 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - E Susan Amirian
- Research Department, Austin Pets Alive!, Austin, TX, 78703, USA
| | - Simone D Guerios
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Maria A Serrano
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Kellie M Hays
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Julie K Levy
- Maddie's Shelter Medicine Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
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Gruntmeir JM, Thompson NM, Long MT, Blagburn BL, Walden HDS. Detection of heartworm antigen without cross-reactivity to helminths and protozoa following heat treatment of canine serum. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:71. [PMID: 33482897 PMCID: PMC7821529 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04573-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detection of Dirofilaria immitis, or heartworm, through antigen in sera is the primary means of diagnosing infections in dogs. In recent years, the practice of heat-treating serum prior to antigen testing has demonstrated improved detection of heartworm infection. While the practice of heat-treating serum has resulted in earlier detection and improved sensitivity for heartworm infections, it has been suggested that heat treatment may cause cross reactivity with A. reconditum and intestinal helminth infections of dogs. No studies have assessed the potential cross-reactivity of these parasites with heartworm tests before and after heat treatment using blood products and an appropriate gold standard reference. METHODS Canine sera (n=163) was used to evaluate a heartworm antigen-ELISA (DiroCHEK®) and potential cross-reactivity with common parasitic infections. The heartworm status and additional parasite infections were confirmed by necropsy and adult helminth species verified morphologically or by PCR, and feces evaluated by centrifugal fecal flotation. RESULTS Intestinal parasites were confirmed in 140 of the dogs by necropsy, and 130 by fecal flotation. Acanthocheilonema reconditum microfilariae were confirmed in 22 dogs. Prevalence of heartworm infection confirmed by necropsy was 35.6% (58/163). In the 105 dogs without heartworms, specificity remained unchanged at 100% both before and after heat treatment despite confirmed infections with A. reconditum, Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma brasiliense, Trichuris vulpis, Toxocara canis, Dipylidium caninum, Spirometra mansonoides, Macracanthorynchus ingens, Cystoisospora sp., Giardia sp., and Sarcocystis sp. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that the use of heat treatment improves sensitivity of heartworm tests and is unlikely to cause false positive antigen results due to Acanthocheilonema reconditum, intestinal helminths, and protozoal parasites in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeff M Gruntmeir
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Nina M Thompson
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Byron L Blagburn
- Department of Pathobiology, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, 1130 Wire Road, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Heather D S Walden
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, 1945 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Szatmári V, van Leeuwen MW, Piek CJ, Venco L. False positive antigen test for Dirofilaria immitis after heat treatment of the blood sample in a microfilaremic dog infected with Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:501. [PMID: 33004047 PMCID: PMC7528589 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04376-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 04/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dirofilaria immitis is responsible for heartworm disease in dogs in endemic areas worldwide. Screening for this infection is done by blood tests. Antigen testing is the most sensitive method to detect an infection with adult (female) worms. Microscopic examination of a blood smear or Knott’s test can be used to detect circulating microfilariae, the infective larvae. To increase the sensitivity of the antigen test by decreasing the false negative test results, heating of the blood sample has been recommended in recent guidelines. Heating is believed to remove blocking immune-complexes. Circulating microfilariae are not specific findings for heartworm infection, as other nematodes (among others, Acanthocheilonema dracunculoides) can also result in microfilaremia. Although the type of microfilariae cannot be determined by microscopy alone, real-time PCR can reliably identify the infecting nematode species. Correct identification of the parasite is of major importance, as an infection with D. immitis requires antiparasitic therapy, whereas A. dracunculoides is thought to be a clinically irrelevant coincidental finding. The present case report describes a microfilaremic dog where the initial antigen test for D. immitis turned positive after heat treatment, whereas real-time PCR revealed that the microfilariae were A. dracunculoides (syn. Dipetalonema dracunculoides). Results A circa 5-year old, asymptomatic Spanish mastiff dog was referred for heartworm therapy because microfilariae were found via a screening blood test. The dog was recently imported to the Netherlands from Spain, where it had been a stray dog. Antigen tests on a plasma sample for D. immitis were performed with three different test kits, which all turned out to be negative. However, heat treatment of two of these samples were carried out and both of them led to a positive antigen test result. Real-time PCR showed that the circulating microfilariae belonged to A. dracunculoides species. Three administrations of moxidectin spot-on at monthly intervals resulted in a negative antigen and a negative Knott’s tests one month after the last treatment. Conclusions We conclude that heat treatment of initially negative blood samples for D. immitis could lead to false positive antigen test results if the dog is infected with A. dracunculoides.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Szatmári
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 108, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Martin Willem van Leeuwen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 108, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christine Jantine Piek
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 108, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Luigi Venco
- Clinica Veterinaria Lago Maggiore, Corso Camillo Benso Cavour, 3, 28040, Dormelletto, NO, Italy
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Keds, the enigmatic flies and their role as vectors of pathogens. Acta Trop 2020; 209:105521. [PMID: 32447028 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Hippoboscid flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), commonly known as keds or louse flies, have been for long time overlooked by the scientific community, and their vector role of infectious agents to humans and domestic animals has been scantly investigated. This is partly due to the fact that the host range for most species is primarily restricted to wildlife, being rarely reported on domestic animals and humans. This led to a scarce scientific knowledge about their biology, ecology, behaviour, epidemiology as well as vector competence. However, the life history of some hippoboscid species, e.g., Melophagus ovinus, Lipoptena cervi and Hippobosca equina, suggests that these ectoparasites are important candidates to vector infectious disease agents (e.g., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Theileria ovis). Indeed, the peculiar biological and behavioural traits (i.e., obligatory blood sucking and reproductive physiology) of many ked species make them a suitable pabulum for pathogen's multiplication and for their transmission to receptive hosts. Therefore, studies focusing on the ked bio-ecological aspects as well as on their vector role are advocated along with the control of keds affecting different animal species. This review discusses current information on keds, highlighting their importance as vectors of pathogens of medical and veterinary concern to all animal species, with a special focus on mammals.
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Laidoudi Y, Marié JL, Tahir D, Watier-Grillot S, Mediannikov O, Davoust B. Detection of Canine Vector-Borne Filariasis and Their Wolbachia Endosymbionts in French Guiana. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8050770. [PMID: 32455576 PMCID: PMC7285362 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8050770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In French Guiana, canine heartworm disease is well known, but the diversity of filarial parasites of dogs remains largely unknown. A total of 98 canine blood samples from Cayenne and Kourou were assessed by a blood wet mount preparation, heartworm antigen test and molecular exploration of filarioid and Wolbachia DNAs, followed by a multiplex species-specific qPCR's identification and a subsequent sequencing analysis. Thereafter, a phylogeny based on maximum likelihood was carried out to facilitate specific identification. Five dogs were microfilaremic. Heartworm antigens were detected in 15 (15.3%) dogs. Of these, six (6.1%) were considered as occult infections as neither microfilariae nor Dirofilaria immitis DNA were detected. The 11 (11.2%) D. immitis isolates corresponded to a low virulent strain. Six of the D. immitis isolates were positive for Wolbachia endosymbionts of D. immitis belonging to the clade C DNA. Acanthocheilonema reconditum DNA was detected in 3 (3.1%) samples. Of these latter, one was found co-infected with the Brugia sp. genotype and the DNA of the clade D of the Wolbachia endosymbiont of Brugia species. This latter was also detected in two filarioid DNA-free samples. Finally, two samples were positive for Cercopithifilaria bainae genotype, which is distinct from those identified in Europe. The present study highlights the urgent need to implement chemoprophylaxis associated with anti-Wolbachia drugs to control these potential zoonoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younes Laidoudi
- Aix Marseille Univ., IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France; (Y.L.); (D.T.); (O.M.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Lou Marié
- Animal Epidemiology Working Group of the Military Health Service, 13014 Marseille, France; (J.-L.M.); (S.W.-G.)
| | - Djamel Tahir
- Aix Marseille Univ., IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France; (Y.L.); (D.T.); (O.M.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France
| | - Stéphanie Watier-Grillot
- Animal Epidemiology Working Group of the Military Health Service, 13014 Marseille, France; (J.-L.M.); (S.W.-G.)
- Epidemiology and Public Health Center of the French Armed Forces, 13014 Marseille, France
| | - Oleg Mediannikov
- Aix Marseille Univ., IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France; (Y.L.); (D.T.); (O.M.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France
| | - Bernard Davoust
- Aix Marseille Univ., IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France; (Y.L.); (D.T.); (O.M.)
- IHU Méditerranée Infection, 13385 Marseille, France
- Animal Epidemiology Working Group of the Military Health Service, 13014 Marseille, France; (J.-L.M.); (S.W.-G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-4-13-73-24-01
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