Effects of ethanol and other constituents of alcoholic beverages on coronary heart disease: a review

Alcohol intake including wine drinking is associated with decreased platelet reactivity in a large population sample

BACKGROUND

Alcohol consumption is linked to decreased platelet function. Whether this link is dependent on sex or type of beverage remains unclear.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were obtained from the Framingham Heart Study (N = 3427). Alcohol consumption was assessed by using standardized medical history and Harvard semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires. Five bioassays measured 120 platelet reactivity traits across agonists in whole-blood and platelet-rich plasma samples. Linear mixed-effects models adjusted for age, sex and aspirin use, hypertension, body mass index, cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, smoking and diabetes evaluated associations between platelet reactivity and alcohol consumption. Beta effects, the regression coefficients that estimate the amount of change in each unit of the predictor variable whereas all other predictor variables remain fixed, for heavy alcohol consumption were compared with effects of aspirin use.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption was associated with decreased platelet reactivity, with more associations among wine and liquor compared with beer. Many platelet-alcohol associations in the full sample (86%, P < 0.01) had larger effect sizes in females. Lower light transmission aggregometry adenosine diphosphate (1.82 µM) maximum aggregation (P = 2.6E-3, 95% CI = -0.07, -0.02, β = -0.042) and area under the curve (P = 7.7E-3, 95% CI = -0.07, -0.01, β = -0.039) were associated with white wine consumption; however, red wine had no associations with platelet reactivity. The effect of aspirin use was on average 11.3 (±4.0) times greater than that of heavy drinking in our full sample.

CONCLUSIONS

We confirm associations between alcohol consumption and decreased platelet reactivity. Effects appeared larger for liquor and wine intake and in our female cohort. Red wine consumption is not associated with lower platelet function, contrasting with prior population studies. Although we report an inhibitory relationship between alcohol intake and platelet function, these effects appear much smaller than that of aspirin use.

Alcohol Use Disorder, Neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease: Interplay Between Oxidative Stress, Neuroimmune Response and Excitotoxicity

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) has been associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Prolonged excessive alcohol intake contributes to increased production of reactive oxygen species that triggers neuroimmune response and cellular apoptosis and necrosis via lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial, protein or DNA damage. Long term binge alcohol consumption also upregulates glutamate receptors, glucocorticoids and reduces reuptake of glutamate in the central nervous system, resulting in glutamate excitotoxicity, and eventually mitochondrial injury and cell death. In this review, we delineate the following principles in alcohol-induced neurodegeneration: (1) alcohol-induced oxidative stress, (2) neuroimmune response toward increased oxidants and lipopolysaccharide, (3) glutamate excitotoxicity and cell injury, and (4) interplay between oxidative stress, neuroimmune response and excitotoxicity leading to neurodegeneration and (5) potential chronic alcohol intake-induced development of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

Chronoamperometric estimation of cognac and brandy antioxidant capacity using MWNT modified glassy carbon electrode

Cognac and brandy components are electrochemically oxidized on multi-walled carbon nanotube modified glassy carbon electrode at 0.44 and 0.59 V in 0.1 М phosphate buffer solution pH 3.0. Voltammetric behavior of the main antioxidant constituents of cognac (ellagic and gallic acids, syringaldehyde, coniferaldehyde, vanillin, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural) has been investigated. The peak at the less positive potential of cognacs is caused by oxidation of gallic acid as well as syringaldehyde- and coniferaldehyde. The second peak corresponds to ellagic acid oxidation. One-step chronoamperometry at 0.59 V for 75 s has been applied for the cognac and brandy antioxidant capacity (AOC) evaluation. Ellagic acid, being the main antioxidant of cognac, has been used as a reference substance. The chronoamperometric response of ellagic acid is linear in the range of 0.66-52.8 µM with the limit of detection and quantification at 0.19 and 0.63 µM, respectively. AOC in ellagic acid equivalents per 100mL of cognac and brandy for different denominations (11 cognacs and 11 ordinary and vintage brandies) has been estimated. AOC of cognacs and brandies increases with the age of the beverages. Positive correlations (r=0.9134-0.9703) with common parameters characterizing antioxidant properties of beverages, in particular antiradical activity, total phenolics content, total antioxidant capacity and ferric reducing power have been observed.

Acute effects of beer on endothelial function and hemodynamics: a single-blind, crossover study in healthy volunteers

OBJECTIVE

Moderate consumption of beer is associated with lower cardiovascular (CV) risk. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of beer consumption on CV risk. To explore the underlying mechanisms, we studied the acute effects of the constituents of beer (alcohol and antioxidants), on established predictors of CV risk: endothelial function, aortic stiffness, pressure wave reflections and aortic pressure.

METHODS

In a randomized, single-blind, crossover study, 17 healthy, non-smoking, men (ages 28.5 ± 5.2 y with body mass index 24.4 ± 2.5 kg/m(2)) consumed on three separate occasions, at least 1 wk apart: 1. 400 mL of beer and 400 mL water, 2. 800 mL of dealcoholized beer (same amount of polyphenols as in the 400 mL of beer), and 3. 67 mL of vodka and 733 mL water (same amount of alcohol as in the 400 mL of beer). Each time aortic stiffness (pulse wave velocity), pressure wave reflections (AΙx), aortic and brachial pressure (Sphygmocor device), and endothelial function (brachial flow mediated dilatation) were assessed at fast and 1 and 2 h postprandial.

RESULTS

Aortic stiffness was significantly and similarly reduced by all three interventions. However, endothelial function was significantly improved only after beer consumption (average 1.33%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.15-2.53). Although wave reflections were significantly reduced by all three interventions (average of beer: 9.1%, dealcoholized beer: 2.8%, vodka 8.5%, all CI within limits of significance), the reduction was higher after beer consumption compared with dealcoholized beer (P = 0.018). Pulse pressure amplification (i.e., brachial/aortic) was increased by all three test drinks.

CONCLUSIONS

Beer acutely improves parameters of arterial function and structure, in healthy non-smokers. This benefit seems to be mediated by the additive or synergistic effects of alcohol and antioxidants and merits further investigation.

Alcohol Consumption, Types of Alcohol, and Parkinson's Disease

Background

The epidemiologic evidence on alcohol consumption and Parkinson’s disease (PD) is equivocal. We prospectively examined total alcohol consumption and consumption of specific types of alcoholic beverage in relation to future risk of PD.

Methods

The study comprised 306,895 participants (180,235 male and 126,660 female) ages 50–71 years in 1995–1996 from the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Consumption of alcoholic beverages in the past 12 months was assessed in 1995–1996. Multivariate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were obtained from logistic regression models.

Results

A total of 1,113 PD cases diagnosed between 2000 and 2006 were included in the analysis. Total alcohol consumption was not associated with PD. However, the association differed by types of alcoholic beverages. Compared with non-beer drinkers, the multivariate ORs for beer drinkers were 0.79 (95% CI: 0.68, 0.92) for <1 drink/day, 0.73 (95% CI: 0.50, 1.07) for 1–1.99 drinks/day, and 0.86 (95% CI: 0.60, 1.21) for ≥2 drinks/day. For liquor consumption, a monotonic increase in PD risk was suggested: ORs (95% CI) were 1.06 (0.91, 1.23), 1.22 (0.94, 1.58), and 1.35 (1.02, 1.80) for <1, 1–1.99, and ≥2 drinks/day, respectively (P for trend <0.03). Additional analyses among exclusive drinkers of one specific type of alcoholic beverage supported the robustness of these findings. The results for wine consumption were less clear, although a borderline lower PD risk was observed when comparing wine drinkers of 1–1.99 drinks/day with none drinkers (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.53, 1.02).

Conclusions

Our results suggest that beer and liquor consumption may have opposite associations with PD: low to moderate beer consumption with lower PD risk and greater liquor consumption with higher risk. These findings and potential underlying mechanisms warrant further investigations.

Steam-cooking rapidly destroys and reverses onion-induced antiplatelet activity

BACKGROUND

Foods in the diet that can aid in the prevention of diseases are of major interest. Onions are key ingredients in many cuisines around the world and moreover, onion demand has trended higher over the past three decades. An important pharmacological aspect of onion is the ability to inhibit platelet aggregation. Raw onions inhibit platelet aggregation; however, when onions are boiled or heated, antiplatelet activity may be abolished.

METHODS

Onion quarters were steamed for 0, 1, 3, 6, 10, and 15 min. The in vitro antiplatelet activity of a yellow hybrid storage onion was examined at these times on the blood of 12 human subjects using in vitro whole blood aggregometry.

RESULTS

Contrary to findings reported for boiling, antiplatelet activity was destroyed between 3 and 6 min of steaming, and at 10 min of steaming, cooked onions stimulated platelet activity. Extracts from cooked onion had the potential to reverse the inhibitory effect on blood platelets by 25%. Responses were consistent across all donors. Total polyphenolic concentration and soluble solids were not affected by steaming time.

CONCLUSIONS

The potential value of cooked onion preparations may result in destruction or reversal of antiplatelet activity, without affecting the polyphenolic concentration.

Profile of non-volatiles in whisky with regard to superoxide dismutase activity

SOD (Superoxide dismutase)-like activities of 23 kinds of single malt whisky (Scotch and Japanese) were evaluated. There was a positive correlation between SOD-like activity and the maturation age of whisky that exceeded the difference resulting from the manufacturing region. The SOD-like activity of Yamazaki 18, a typical single malt whisky in Japan, was approximately 1333 U/ml and that of non-volatile components in the whisky was 388U/mg, indicating that single malt whisky generally has a very strong SOD-like activity. To elucidate their contribution to SOD-like activity, the non-volatile components of whisky (Yamazaki 18) were ultrafiltered and separated with a Diaion HP20/water-EtOH system. Elution of the fraction less than 5000 molecular weight (<5000 MW fraction) with 60% (v/v) EtOH contributed most to SOD-like activity of the whisky. As this elution contained a considerable amount of polyphenolics, the content and SOD-like specific activity of ellagic acid, gallic acid, and lyoniresinol--the main whisky polyphenolics--were evaluated. The contribution of these compounds to the SOD-like activity of whisky was approximately 15%. Polyphenolics in whisky were relatively distributed to a higher MW fraction compared to carbohydrates in whisky, and specific activity (SOD-like activity per weight) of the >10,000 MW fraction was greater than that of the <5000 MW fraction, although the content of this fraction was low. These results indicate that various polyphenolics with higher molecular weights also contribute to the SOD-like activity of whisky together with main whisky polyphenolics.

Drinking patterns and the development of functional limitations in older adults: longitudinal analyses of the health and retirement survey

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether consistent low-risk drinking is associated with lower risk of developing functional limitations among older adults.

METHOD

Data were obtained from five waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Function was assessed by questions measuring four physical abilities and five instrumental activities of daily living. Five different drinking patterns were determined using data over two consecutive survey periods.

RESULTS

Over the follow-up periods, 38.6% of older adults developed functional limitations. Consistent low-risk drinkers had lower odds of developing functional limitations compared with consistent abstainers, and the effect of consistent low-risk drinking was greater among those aged 50 to 64 years compared with those aged ≥65 years. Other drinking patterns were not associated with lower odds of incident functional limitation.

DISCUSSION

Consistent low-risk drinking was associated with lower odds of developing functional limitations, and this association was greater among older middle-aged adults aged 50 to 64 years.

Alcohol consumption and domain-specific cognitive function in older adults: longitudinal data from the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study

OBJECTIVES

The association of alcohol consumption with performance in different cognitive domains has not been well studied.

METHODS

The Johns Hopkins Precursors Study was used to examine associations between prospectively collected information about alcohol consumption ascertained on multiple occasions starting at age 55 years on average with domain-specific cognition at age 72 years. Cognitive variables measured phonemic and semantic fluency, attention, verbal memory, and global cognition.

RESULTS

Controlling for age, hypertension, smoking status, sex, and other cognitive variables, higher average weekly quantity and frequency of alcohol consumed in midlife were associated with lower phonemic fluency. There were no associations with four other measures of cognitive function. With respect to frequency of alcohol intake, phonemic fluency was significantly better among those who drank three to four alcoholic beverages per week as compared with daily or almost daily drinkers. A measure of global cognition was not associated with alcohol intake at any point over the follow-up.

DISCUSSION

Results suggest that higher alcohol consumption in midlife may impair some components of executive function in late life.

Polarographic assay based on hydrogen peroxide scavenging in determination of antioxidant activity of strong alcohol beverages

Total antioxidant (AO) activity of strong alcohol beverages such as wine and plum brandies, whiskeys, herbal and sweet fruit liqueurs have been assessed using a polarographic assay based on hydrogen peroxide scavenging (HPS). Rank of order of total AO activity, expressed as percentage of decrease of anodic oxidation current of hydrogen peroxide, was found analogous with total phenolic content estimated by Folin-Ciocalteau (FC) assay and radical scavenging capacity against the stable free radical 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Application of the assay for surveying of a quarter century long maturation of plum brandy in oak barrel was demonstrated. In addition, influence of different storage conditions on preservation of AO activity of some herbal liqueurs was surveyed. Wide area of application of this simple, fast, low cost and reliable assay in analysis and quality monitoring of various strong alcohol beverages was confirmed.

Alcohol consumption and health among elders

PURPOSE

This article estimates the effects of alcohol consumption on self-reported overall health status, injuries, heart problems, emergency room use, and hospitalizations among persons older than the age of 65.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We analyzed data from the first wave of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions, a nationally representative study. We used multivariate regression and instrumental variables methods to study the associations between alcohol consumption (current drinking, binge drinking, and average number of drinks consumed) and several indicators of health status and health care utilization.

RESULTS

Alcohol consumption by women was associated with better self-perceived health status, improved cardiovascular health, and lower rates of hospitalizations. We detected no significant negative or positive associations for older men.

IMPLICATIONS

These findings suggest that light to moderate alcohol use by older women may have beneficial health effects. Experimental trials, however, are needed to more rigorously assess the potential benefits of alcohol use by elders due to the inherent biases of observational studies.

Alcohol induces relaxation of rat thoracic aorta and mesenteric arterial bed

AIMS

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of alcohol on rat artery and its underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The tension of isolated Sprague-Dawley rat thoracic aortic rings and the pressure of rat mesenteric arterial beds perfused with different concentrations of alcohol (0.1-7.0 per thousand) were measured.

RESULTS

At resting tensions, alcohol caused a concentration-dependent relaxation on endothelium-denuded aortic rings precontracted with KCl (6 x 10(-2) mol/L) or phenylephrine (PE, 10(-6) mol/L), and this effect was most evident on rings at a resting tension of 3 g. Alcohol induced much less vasodilation on endothelium-intact rings. Alcohol inhibited the CaCl(2)-induced contraction of endothelium-denuded aortic rings precontracted with KCl or PE. Incubation of rings with dantrolene (5 x 10(-5) mol/L), a ryanodine receptor blocker, or 2-aminoethyl diphenylborinate (7.5 x 10(-5) mol/L), an IP(3) receptor blocker, attenuated the vasodilating effect of alcohol on rings precontracted with PE. Alcohol also concentration-dependently relaxed rat mesenteric arterial beds precontracted with KCl (6 x 10(-2) mol/L) or PE (10(-5) mol/L), which was more potent on endothelium-denuded than on endothelium-intact beds.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol has a vasodilating effect on rat artery depending on the resting tension. Both extracellular and intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization of vascular smooth muscle cells are involved in the vascular effect of alcohol.

Determination of phenolic compounds in grape skin by capillary electrophoresis with simultaneous dual fluorescence and diode array absorption detection after dynamic superheated liquid leaching

A fast method for the analysis of 10 of the characteristic compounds of the phenolic fraction in grape skin is proposed here. The method is based on a leaching step by superheated ethanol-water at 120 degrees C and 80bar, which enables to maintain the leachant in liquid state and wide the range of leachable compounds (polar, mid-polar and relatively non-polar compounds) by decrease of the dielectric constant; thus, allowing high leaching efficiencies to be achieved in 30min. After leaching, the target analytes were separated by capillary electrophoresis using a 50mM sodium tetraborate with 10% methanol (pH 8.4) solution as background electrolyte. Determination was performed by simultaneous dual diode array absorption and fluorescence detection, the combination of which increased the selectivity of the overall method, particularly interesting taking into account the complexity of the leachate as no additional concentration and/or clean-up steps were required prior to electrophoretic separation, which lasted only 10min. The short time of the electrophoretic step makes it useful as a screening tool of the target analytes in commercial and non-commercial extracts belonging to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutraceutical or food fields.

The effect of short-term lyophilized beer consumption on established hypertension in rats

Effects of short-term lyophilized beer (LB) consumption on normotensive (WKY) and hypertensive (SHR) rats are reported. It was found that LB contains high quantities of bioactive compounds and has a high antioxidant potential. The WKY and SHR rats were divided into four groups of 8, two experimental and two controls, which were named LBWKY and LBSHR and ControlWKY and ControlSHR, respectively. LB was given to the rats of the LBWKY and LBSHR groups intragastrically at a dose of 2.72 g/kg in a volume of 10 ml/kg for 10 days. The rats of the control groups received saline solution. The following indices were determined: body weight gain, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, using a tail cuff method and GABA accumulation in the hypothalamus and the pons-medulla as measured by GABA-T inhibition. It was found that the treatment of rats with LB had no effect on the blood pressure and heart rate values. In both rat strains, LB decreased GABA accumulation in the hypothalamus and the pons-medulla. A significant reduction of body weight gain was observed in both LB-treated groups when compared with the corresponding controls. In conclusion, LB contains high quantities of bioactive compounds and possesses a high antioxidant potential. Diet supplemented with LB causes significant reduction of the central GABAergic activity in WKY and SHR rats without any effect on cardiovascular function. In addition, in both animal strains there was an apparent inverse association between LB intake and body weight gains.

Effect of Armagnac fractions on human platelet aggregation in vitro and on rat arteriovenous shunt thrombosis in vivo probably not related only to polyphenols

Previous studies showed that alcohol-free extracts of Armagnac, an oak cask aged spirit rich in polyphenols, inhibit human platelet function in vitro and in vivo, in an experimental rat arteriovenous shunt thrombosis model and in human healthy volunteers. To identify active compounds, we fractionated a freeze-dried extract of a 10-year-old Armagnac using successively chloroform, diethyl ether and ethyl acetate. The 4 resulting fractions were tested on in vitro human platelet aggregation induced by ADP and in vivo on arteriovenous shunt thrombosis after 10 days oral treatment in rats. Active components were found mainly in fractions 1 and 3: at the highest concentration (2.4 10(-2) g/l), in vitro ADP-induced aggregation was inhibited by 62.7+/-2.1% and 51.2+/-3.8% for F1 and F3, respectively, vs 18.9+/-2.4% and 13.9+/-0.4% for fractions 2 and 4 and 33.6+/-1.5% for the crude extract. There was a significant decrease in thrombus weight with the crude extract and all fractions tested after 10 days treatment with 2.5 mg/kg/day orally, greatest with fraction 1. Characterisation of phenol content showed that fraction 1, the most biologically active, was essentially devoid of ellagic acid and ellagitannins, the polyphenols initially thought responsible for the effect, whereas fraction 2 which was mostly inactive, was the richest in polyphenols.

CONCLUSION

The antiplatelet and antithrombotic activity of Armagnac seems mostly unrelated to polyphenols.

Intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis and aggregation in platelets are impaired by ethanol through the generation of H2O2 and oxidation of sulphydryl groups

The mechanisms involved in the effect of ethanol on Ca2+ entry and aggregability have been investigated in human platelets in order to shed new light on the pathogenesis of alcohol consumption. Ethanol (50 mM) induced H2O2 production in platelets by Ca2+-dependent and independent mechanisms. Ca2+ entry induced by ethanol was impaired by catalase. Ethanol reduced SOCE mediated by depletion of the 2,5-di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-hydroquinone (TBHQ)-sensitive acidic stores but enhances SOCE regulated by the dense tubular system. This effect was abolished by treatment with catalase or the sulphydryl group reducing agent dithiotreitol (DTT). Similarly, the anti-aggregant effect of ethanol was prevented by platelet treatment with catalase or DTT. In conclusion we provide considerable evidence that ethanol alters Ca2+ entry and reduces thrombin-induced aggregation as a result of the generation of H2O2 and the oxidation of sulphydryl groups in human platelets.

Older males, cognitive function, and alcohol consumption

We investigated the question, how do older men who drink alcohol differ from those who do not drink on measures of cognitive function, memory, affect, and health? Of the nonprobability sample of male participants (N = 60), 35 (58%) of the males reported some degree of alcohol consumption. Eleven men had one or more drinks per day, 14 had one or more drinks per week, and 9 were occasional drinkers. The drinkers reported significantly less depression, had higher self-reported general health and vitality, and had higher cognitive performance, cognitive flexibility, and verbal memory, and greater knowledge of memory processes.

Alterations in intracellular calcium homeostasis and platelet aggregation induced by ethanol

The in vitro effects of ethanol on intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis and tyrosine phosphorylation have been investigated in human platelets in order to clarify the cellular mechanisms underlying its described anti-aggregant effects. Ethanol (1-50 mM) reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, the rate and amplitude of aggregation and attenuated the phosphotyrosine content both induced by 0.1U/ml of the physiological ligand, thrombin. Thrombin-induced Ca(2+) entry to the cytosol was significantly reduced, and capacitative Ca(2+) entry (CCE) significantly altered, by 50 mM ethanol, so that ethanol reduces CCE mediated by depletion of the 2,5-di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-hydroquinone (TBHQ)-sensitive store but enhances CCE induced by the TBHQ-insensitive pool. In conclusion, we provide considerable evidence that ethanol reduces thrombin-induced aggregation, which is likely a result of a significant inhibition of Ca(2+) entry, as well as a reduction in the activity of protein tyrosine kinases.

Antecedent ethanol ingestion prevents postischemic microvascular dysfunction

Prolonged ischemia followed by reperfusion (I/R) results in impaired endothelial cell function in all segments of the microvasculature. Moreover, microcirculatory dysfunction plays a major role in the genesis of the reperfusion component of total tissue injury in I/R. Thus, preservation of endothelial function is an important therapeutic goal for ameliorating injury in tissues subjected to I/R. An accumulating body of evidence indicates that low to moderate ethanol consumption produces an adaptive transformation to a protected phenotype in both microvascular endothelium and parenchymal cells such that they are rendered resistant to the pathologic effects of I/R. The purpose of this review is to summarize our current understanding of the signaling pathways underlying the development of the preconditioned state induced by antecedent ethanol in arteriolar, capillary, and venular endothelium. In addition, we will highlight understudied areas with regard to microvascular protection afforded by antecedent ethanol in the hopes that this will stimulate investigation of its underlying mechanisms. Understanding these signaling pathways may provide a mechanistic rationale for the development of novel treatment interventions that target both the microcirculatory and parenchymal sequelae to I/R, thereby maximizing the therapeutic potential of the protected phenotypes produced by pharmacologic preconditioning.

Antiatherogenic potential of red wine: clinician update

Complications of atherosclerosis remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in industrialized countries. Epidemiological studies have repeatedly demonstrated that moderate alcohol intake has a beneficial effect on cardiovascular disease. The purpose of this review is to examine the epidemiological and biological evidence supporting the intake of red wine as a means of reducing atherosclerosis. On the basis of epidemiological studies, moderate intake of alcoholic beverages, including red wine, reduces the risk of cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular disease in populations. In addition to the favorable biological effects of alcohol on the lipid profile, on hemostatic factors, and in reducing insulin resistance, the phenolic compounds in red wine appear to interfere with the molecular processes underlying the initiation, progression, and rupture of atherosclerotic plaques. Whether red wine is more beneficial than other types of alcohol remains unclear. Definitive data from a large-scale, randomized clinical end-point trial of red wine intake would be required before physicians can advise patients to use wine as part of preventative or medical therapies.

Grape seed procyanidins improve atherosclerotic risk index and induce liver CYP7A1 and SHP expression in healthy rats

Moderate consumption of red wine reduces risk of death from cardiovascular disease. The polyphenols in red wine are ultimately responsible for this effect, exerting antiatherogenic actions through their antioxidant capacities and modulating intracellular signaling pathways and transcriptional activities. Lipoprotein metabolism is crucial in atherogenesis, and liver is the principal organ controlling lipoprotein homeostasis. This study was intended to identify the primary effects of procyanidins, the most abundant polyphenols in red wine, on both plasma lipoprotein profile and the expression of genes controlling lipoprotein homeostasis in the liver. We show that procyanidins lowered plasma triglyceride, free fatty acids, apolipoprotein B (apoB), LDL-cholesterol and nonHDL:nonLDL-cholesterol levels and slightly increased HDL-cholesterol. Liver mRNA levels of small heterodimer partner (SHP), cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), and cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes increased, whereas those of apoAII, apoCI, and apoCIII decreased. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) mRNA levels increased in muscle and decreased in adipose tissue. In conclusion, procyanidins improve the atherosclerotic risk index in the postprandial state, inducing in the liver the overexpression of CYP7A1 (suggesting an increase of cholesterol elimination via bile acids) and SHP, a nuclear receptor emerging as a key regulator of lipid homeostasis at the transcriptional level. These results could explain, at least in part, the beneficial long-term effects associated with moderate red wine consumption.