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Stella N. THC and CBD: Similarities and differences between siblings. Neuron 2023; 111:302-327. [PMID: 36638804 PMCID: PMC9898277 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its sibling, cannabidiol (CBD), are produced by the same Cannabis plant and have similar chemical structures but differ dramatically in their mechanisms of action and effects on brain functions. Both THC and CBD exhibit promising therapeutic properties; however, impairments and increased incidence of mental health diseases are associated with acute and chronic THC use, respectively, and significant side effects are associated with chronic use of high-dose CBD. This review covers recent molecular and preclinical discoveries concerning the distinct mechanisms of action and bioactivities of THC and CBD and their impact on human behavior and diseases. These discoveries provide a foundation for the development of cannabinoid-based therapeutics for multiple devastating diseases and to assure their safe use in the growing legal market of Cannabis-based products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nephi Stella
- Department of Pharmacology, Department Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Cannabis Research, Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction, Pain, and Emotion, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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2
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Riley AL, Manke HN, Huang S. Impact of the Aversive Effects of Drugs on Their Use and Abuse. Behav Neurol 2022; 2022:8634176. [PMID: 35496768 PMCID: PMC9045991 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8634176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug use and abuse are complex issues in that the basis of each may involve different determinants and consequences, and the transition from one to the other may be equally multifaceted. A recent model of the addiction cycle (as proposed by Koob and his colleagues) illustrates how drug-taking patterns transition from impulsive (acute use) to compulsive (chronic use) as a function of various neuroadaptations leading to the downregulation of DA systems, upregulation of stress systems, and the dysregulation of the prefrontal/orbitofrontal cortex. Although the nature of reinforcement in the initiation and mediation of these effects may differ (positive vs. negative), the role of reinforcement in drug intake (acute and chronic) is well characterized. However, drugs of abuse have other stimulus properties that may be important in their use and abuse. One such property is their aversive effects that limit drug intake instead of initiating and maintaining it. Evidence of such effects comes from both clinical and preclinical populations. In support of this position, the present review describes the aversive effects of drugs (assessed primarily in conditioned taste aversion learning), the fact that they occur concurrently with reward as assessed in combined taste aversion/place preference designs, the role of aversive effects in drug-taking (in balance with their rewarding effects), the dissociation of these affective properties in that they can be affected in different ways by the same manipulations, and the impact of various parametric, experiential, and subject factors on the aversive effects of drugs and the consequent impact of these factors on their use and abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L. Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Hayley N. Manke
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Shihui Huang
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
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3
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Asth L, Santos AC, Moreira FA. The endocannabinoid system and drug-associated contextual memories. Behav Pharmacol 2022; 33:90-104. [PMID: 33491992 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Drug abuse and addiction can be initiated and reinstated by contextual stimuli previously paired with the drug use. The influence exerted by the context on drug-seeking behaviour can be modelled in experimental animals with place-conditioning protocols. Here, we review the effects of cannabinoids in place conditioning and the therapeutic potential of the endocannabinoid system for interfering with drug-related memories. The phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) tends to induce conditioned place preference (CPP) at low doses and conditioned place aversion at high doses; cannabidiol is devoid of any effect, yet it inhibits CPP induced by some drugs. Synthetic CB1 receptor agonists tend to recapitulate the biphasic profile observed with THC, whereas selective antagonists/inverse agonists inhibit CPP induced by cocaine, nicotine, alcohol and opioids. However, their therapeutic use is limited by potential psychiatric side effects. The CB2 receptor has also attracted attention, because selective CB2 receptor agonists inhibit cocaine-induced CPP. Inhibitors of endocannabinoid membrane transport and hydrolysis yield mixed results. In targeting the endocannabinoid system for developing new treatments for drug addiction, future research should focus on 'neutral' CB1 receptor antagonists and CB2 receptor agonists. Such compounds may offer a well-tolerated pharmacological profile and curb addiction by preventing drug-seeking triggered by conditioned contextual cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laila Asth
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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4
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Nelson KH, Manke HN, Bailey JM, Vlachos A, Maradiaga KJ, Huang S, Weiss TD, Rice KC, Riley AL. Ethanol pre-exposure differentially impacts the rewarding and aversive effects of α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP): Implications for drug use and abuse. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 211:173286. [PMID: 34634300 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Exposure to a drug can subsequently impact its own reactivity as well as that of other drugs. Given that users of synthetic cathinones, i.e., "bath salts", typically have extensive and varied drug histories, an understanding of the effects of drug history on the behavioral and physiological consequences of synthetic cathiones may be important to their abuse liability. OBJECTIVES The goal of the current work was to assess the effects of an ethanol pre-exposure on the rewarding and aversive effects of α-PVP. METHODS Adult male Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to ethanol prior to combined conditioned taste avoidance/conditioned place preference training in which rats were injected with 1.5, 3 or 5 mg/kg of racemic α-PVP or vehicle. Following a 7-day washout period, rats were then tested for thermoregulatory effects of α-PVP using subcutaneous probes to measure body temperature changes over the course of 8 h. This was followed 10 days later by assessments for α-PVP-induced locomotor activity and stereotypies over a 1-h session. RESULTS α-PVP induced significant dose- and trial-dependent taste avoidance that was significantly attenuated by ethanol history and dose- and time-dependent increases in locomotor activity that were significantly increased by ethanol. α-PVP also induced place preferences and dose- and time-dependent increases in body temperature, but these measures were unaffected by ethanol history. CONCLUSIONS α-PVP's aversive effects (as measured by taste avoidance) were attenuated, while its rewarding effects (as indexed by place preference conditioning) were unaffected, by ethanol pre-exposure. Such a pattern may indicate increased α-PVP abuse liability, as changes in the balance of aversion and reward may impact overall drug effects and likelihood of drug intake. Future self-administration studies will be necessary to explore this possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine H Nelson
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA.
| | - Hayley N Manke
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Jacob M Bailey
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Anna Vlachos
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Karina J Maradiaga
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Shihui Huang
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Tania D Weiss
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D. C. 20016, USA.
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Schurman LD, Lu D, Kendall DA, Howlett AC, Lichtman AH. Molecular Mechanism and Cannabinoid Pharmacology. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2020; 258:323-353. [PMID: 32236882 PMCID: PMC8637936 DOI: 10.1007/164_2019_298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since antiquity, Cannabis has provoked enormous intrigue for its potential medicinal properties as well as for its unique pharmacological effects. The elucidation of its major cannabinoid constituents, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), led to the synthesis of new cannabinoids (termed synthetic cannabinoids) to understand the mechanisms underlying the pharmacology of Cannabis. These pharmacological tools were instrumental in the ultimate discovery of the endogenous cannabinoid system, which consists of CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors and endogenously produced ligands (endocannabinoids), which bind and activate both cannabinoid receptors. CB1 receptors mediate the cannabimimetic effects of THC and are highly expressed on presynaptic neurons in the nervous system, where they modulate neurotransmitter release. In contrast, CB2 receptors are primarily expressed on immune cells. The endocannabinoids are tightly regulated by biosynthetic and hydrolytic enzymes. Accordingly, the endocannabinoid system plays a modulatory role in many physiological processes, thereby generating many promising therapeutic targets. An unintended consequence of this research was the emergence of synthetic cannabinoids sold for human consumption to circumvent federal laws banning Cannabis use. Here, we describe research that led to the discovery of the endogenous cannabinoid system and show how knowledge of this system benefitted as well as unintentionally harmed human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley D Schurman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Dai Lu
- Rangel College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | - Debra A Kendall
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Allyn C Howlett
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology and Center for Research on Substance Use and Addiction, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Aron H Lichtman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
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Nelson KH, Manke HN, Imanalieva A, Rice KC, Riley AL. Sex differences in α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP)-induced taste avoidance, place preference, hyperthermia and locomotor activity in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2019; 185:172762. [PMID: 31445057 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2019.172762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The majority of synthetic cathinone research has used only male subjects, and as a result there are few studies assessing the impact of biological sex on their effects. OBJECTIVES The current work extends the characterization of the second-generation synthetic cathinone, α-PVP, by investigating how biological sex impacts α-PVP's aversive and rewarding effects important to its use and potential abuse. METHODS A combined conditioned taste avoidance/conditioned place preference preparation was utilized in which adult male and female Sprague Dawley rats were injected with 1.5, 3 or 6 mg/kg of racemic α-PVP or vehicle (saline) (IP). Following a 24-day washout period, rats were then tested for thermoregulatory effects of α-PVP using subcutaneous microchips to measure body temperature changes over the course of 8 h. This was followed 21 days later by assessments for α-PVP-induced locomotor activity and stereotypies over a 1-h session. RESULTS Dose-dependent conditioned taste avoidance was evident in both males and females, although females displayed weaker avoidance at 3 mg/kg compared to males. Males displayed a dose-dependent conditioned place preference, while females did not form a place preference at any dose. α-PVP elicited dose- and time-dependent hyperthermia, with males displaying a faster on-set and delayed off-set compared to females. α-PVP also produced dose- and time-dependent increases in locomotor activity (F > M) and stereotypies (M > F). CONCLUSIONS As described, males displayed greater rewarding (as indexed by place preference conditioning) and aversive (as indexed by taste avoidance, hyperthermia and stereotypies) effects of α-PVP. Although comparisons between males and females in α-PVP self-administration have not been reported, these data suggest that males may be more likely to use the drug. The implications for sex differences in human use of α-PVP were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine H Nelson
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
| | - Hayley N Manke
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Aikerim Imanalieva
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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7
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Spencer S, Neuhofer D, Chioma VC, Garcia-Keller C, Schwartz DJ, Allen N, Scofield MD, Ortiz-Ithier T, Kalivas PW. A Model of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Self-administration and Reinstatement That Alters Synaptic Plasticity in Nucleus Accumbens. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 84:601-610. [PMID: 29861097 PMCID: PMC6162175 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug, but knowledge of the neurological consequences of cannabis use is deficient. Two primary components of cannabis are Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). We established a THC+CBD model of self-administration and reinstated drug seeking to determine if, similar to other addictive drugs, cannabis produces enduring synaptic changes in nucleus accumbens core (NAcore) thought to contribute vulnerability to drug reinstatement. METHODS Sprague Dawley rats were trained to self-administer THC+CBD (n = 165) or were used as vehicle self-administering control animals (n = 24). Reinstatement was initiated by context, cues, drug priming, and stress (yohimbine injection). Enduring neuroadaptations produced by THC+CBD self-administration were assayed using four measures: dendritic spine morphology, long-term depression, alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid/N-methyl-D-aspartate ratios, and behavioral pharmacology. RESULTS We described a novel rodent model of cannabis relapse involving intravenous THC+CBD self-administration and drug seeking induced by conditioned context, cues, and stress. Cued reinstatement of THC+CBD seeking depended on a sequence of events implicated in relapse to other addictive drugs, as reinstatement was prevented by daily treatment with N-acetylcysteine or acute intra-NAcore pretreatment with a neuronal nitric oxide synthase or matrix metalloprotease-9 inhibitor, all of which normalize impaired glutamate homeostasis. The capacity to induce N-methyl-D-aspartate long-term depression in NAcore medium spiny neurons was abolished and dendritic spine density was reduced, but alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid/N-methyl-D-aspartate ratio was unaltered in THC+CBD-trained animals, akin to opioids, but not to psychostimulants. CONCLUSIONS We report enduring consequences of THC+CBD use on critical relapse circuitry and synaptic physiology in NAcore following rat self-administration and provide the first report of cue- and stress-induced reinstatement with this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sade Spencer
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.
| | - Daniela Neuhofer
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Vivian C Chioma
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Constanza Garcia-Keller
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Danielle J Schwartz
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Nicholas Allen
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Michael D Scofield
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina; Department of Anesthesiology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Tara Ortiz-Ithier
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina; Department of Physiology, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico
| | - Peter W Kalivas
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
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Barrus DG, Lefever TW, Wiley JL. Evaluation of reinforcing and aversive effects of voluntary Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol ingestion in rats. Neuropharmacology 2018; 137:133-140. [PMID: 29758385 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Edible cannabis-infused products are an increasingly popular method of using cannabis in the United States. Yet, preclinical research to determine mechanisms underlying abuse of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis, has focused primarily on the effects of parenteral administration. The purpose of this study was to examine the rewarding and aversive effects of oral THC in a novel rodent voluntary ingestion model. Adult male and female Sprague Dawley rats were given access to sucrose-sweetened solutions during daily sessions. A range of THC concentrations, each paired with a unique flavor previously tested alone, was introduced into these solutions for four-session exposure periods and drinking volumes were measured. Injected (i.p.) THC doses were also paired with unique flavors to compare the effects of route of THC administration on drinking. Introduction of THC into sucrose solutions dose-dependently decreased drinking upon initial exposure, though drinking generally increased in subsequent sessions. By contrast, i.p. THC produced sustained dose-dependent decreases in drinking in rats of both sexes. Subsequent exposure to paired flavors in the absence of THC resulted in further decreases in drinking, suggesting route-specific aversion. Additional testing using saccharin-sweetened solutions in a two-bottle choice paradigm was also conducted, with THC producing sustained dose-dependent decreases in drinking after initial exposure in rats of both sexes. Though self-administration of ingested THC was not demonstrated, evidence of route-specific THC aversion was observed, which suggests that certain routes and/or rates of THC administration may mitigate some of its aversive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Barrus
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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Panlilio LV, Justinova Z. Preclinical Studies of Cannabinoid Reward, Treatments for Cannabis Use Disorder, and Addiction-Related Effects of Cannabinoid Exposure. Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:116-141. [PMID: 28845848 PMCID: PMC5719102 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cannabis use has become increasingly accepted socially and legally, for both recreational and medicinal purposes. Without reliable information about the effects of cannabis, people cannot make informed decisions regarding its use. Like alcohol and tobacco, cannabis can have serious adverse effects on health, and some people have difficulty discontinuing their use of the drug. Many cannabis users progress to using and becoming addicted to other drugs, but the reasons for this progression are unclear. The natural cannabinoid system of the brain is complex and involved in many functions, including brain development, reward, emotion, and cognition. Animal research provides an objective and controlled means of obtaining information about: (1) how cannabis affects the brain and behavior, (2) whether medications can be developed to treat cannabis use disorder, and (3) whether cannabis might produce lasting changes in the brain that increase the likelihood of becoming addicted to other drugs. This review explains the tactics used to address these issues, evaluates the progress that has been made, and offers some directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh V Panlilio
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Zuzana Justinova
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, DHHS, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Effect of footshock stress on place conditioning produced by Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, URB597, in Sprague-Dawley rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:3229-3240. [PMID: 28803323 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4714-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2017] [Accepted: 08/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Unlike other drugs of abuse, Δ9-tetrahydrocanabinol (THC) is generally aversive in rodent conditioned place preference models, but little is known about how stress may modify THC affective properties. OBJECTIVE We evaluate the potential of footshock stress to enhance the rewarding effects of THC and the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor, URB597, as it has been shown to enhance their anxiolytic effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS The effect of footshock stress 24 h prior to each conditioning trial on the rewarding/aversive effects of THC (1, 0.1, 0.5 mg/kg, ip) and URB597 (0.3 mg/kg, ip) was evaluated in an unbiased place conditioning procedure in rats. Subsequently, the same stressor was given immediately prior to conditioning with THC (1 and 0.1 mg/kg). Locomotor activity was also measured during conditioning. RESULTS A dose of 1 mg/kg THC, but not 0.1-0.5 mg/kg, produced a conditioned place aversion (CPA) that was not modified by footshock delivered 24 h prior to conditioning trials; however, footshock delivered immediately prior to conditioning trials prevented that CPA. Lower doses of THC and URB597 produced no place conditioning regardless of footshock conditions. A dose of 1 mg/kg THC produced locomotor suppression during conditioning trials that was prevented by footshock delivered 24 h before and reversed to locomotor activation by footshock delivered immediately before conditioning. CONCLUSIONS Unlike the effect of footshock on THC- and URB597-induced anxiolytic effects, footshock does not promote THC or URB597-induced reward in a conditioned place preference paradigm. However, footshock stress reverses the sedative effects of 1 mg/kg THC.
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11
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Clasen MM, Flax SM, Hempel BJ, Cheng K, Rice KC, Riley AL. Antagonism of the kappa opioid receptor attenuates THC-induced place aversions in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 163:30-35. [PMID: 29100992 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Prior research with transgenic mice in which the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) has been suppressed or activated suggests that the aversive effects of THC are mediated by activity of this receptor subtype. If the activity of the KOR system is responsible for mediating the THC's aversive effects, then selective antagonism of the KOR by norBNI should block such aversive effects. To test this hypothesis, rats were pretreated with norBNI 24h prior to place conditioning with THC to assess its effect on the acquisition of THC-induced place aversions. METHODS In Experiment 1, rats pretreated with norBNI (0 or 15mg/kg) were exposed 24h later to one side of a place conditioning chamber and injected with THC (0, 0.56, 1 and 3.2mg/kg). On the next day, they were injected with vehicle and placed on the opposite side of the chamber. This was repeated for a total of five cycles followed by a test of the animal's aversion to the THC-paired side. In Experiment 2, rats were pretreated with norBNI (0 or 30mg/kg) prior to place conditioning 24h later with THC (0 or 3.2mg/kg). RESULTS In Experiment 1, THC produced dose-dependent place aversions that were unaffected by norBNI (15mg/kg). In Experiment 2, THC induced significant place aversions that were fully attenuated by norBNI (30mg/kg). CONCLUSIONS Although 15mg/kg norBNI was ineffective in antagonizing the aversive effects of THC, 30mg/kg norBNI blocked the ability of THC to induce a place aversion. The results of the latter assessment are consistent with prior research with transgenic manipulations of the KOR and provide further evidence for the role of the KOR system in the aversive properties of THC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Clasen
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
| | - Shaun M Flax
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Briana J Hempel
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Kejun Cheng
- Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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12
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Riley AL, Hempel BJ, Clasen MM. Sex as a biological variable: Drug use and abuse. Physiol Behav 2017; 187:79-96. [PMID: 29030249 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The study of sex as a biological variable is a necessary emphasis across a wide array of endpoints, including basic neuroscience, medicine, mental health, physiology and behavior. The present review summarizes work from clinical and preclinical populations on sex differences in drug use and abuse, ranging from initiation to escalation/dysregulation and from drug cessation/abstinence to relapse. These differences are analyzed in the context of the addiction cycle conceptualization of Koob and his colleagues and address patterns of drug use (binge/intoxication), motivation underlying its use (withdrawal/negative affect) and likelihood and causes of craving and relapse of drug taking (preoccupation/anticipation). Following this overview, an assessment of the basis for the reported sex differences is discussed in the context of the affective (rewarding and aversive) properties of drugs of abuse and how such properties and their balance vary with sex and contribute to drug intake. Finally, the interaction of sex with several experiential (drug history) and subject (age) factors and how these interactions affect reward and aversion are discussed to highlight the importance of understanding such interactions in predicting drug use and abuse. We note that sex as a biological variable remains one of critical evaluation and that such investigations of sex differences in drug use and abuse continue and be expanded to assess all facets of their mediation, including these affective properties, how their balance may be impacted by the multiple conditions under which drugs are taken and how this overall balance affects drug use and addiction vulnerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA.
| | - Briana J Hempel
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Matthew M Clasen
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
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Nelson KH, Hempel BJ, Clasen MM, Rice KC, Riley AL. Conditioned taste avoidance, conditioned place preference and hyperthermia induced by the second generation 'bath salt' α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP). Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 156:48-55. [PMID: 28427995 PMCID: PMC6155479 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND α-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone (α-PVP) has been reported to be rewarding in a variety of pre-clinical models. Given that a number of drugs of abuse have both rewarding and aversive effects, the balance of which influences addiction potential, the present study examined the aversive properties of α-PVP by assessing its ability to induce taste avoidance. This assessment was made in a combined taste avoidance/place conditioning design that also allowed an evaluation of the relationship between α-PVP's aversive and rewarding effects. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to a novel saccharin solution, injected with one of four doses of α-PVP (0, 0.3, 1.0 and 3.0mg/kg) (IP) and placed on one side of a place conditioning apparatus. The next day, they were injected with vehicle, given access to water and placed on the other side. Following four conditioning cycles, saccharin avoidance and place preferences were then assessed. The effects of α-PVP on body temperature were also examined. RESULTS α-PVP induced dose-dependent taste avoidance as well as significant increases in time spent on the drug-paired side (although this effect was not dependent on dose). α-PVP also induced dose- and time-dependent hyperthermia. CONCLUSIONS α-PVP induced significant taste avoidance whose strength relative to the psychostimulants methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and cocaine paralleled their relative binding to the dopamine transporter. Similar to other drugs of abuse, α-PVP has both aversive and rewarding effects. It will be important to assess how various experiential and subject variables impact these effects and their balance to predict abuse liability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine H Nelson
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA.
| | - Briana J Hempel
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Matthew M Clasen
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Kenner C Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA.
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14
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Hempel BJ, Wakeford AGP, Nelson KH, Clasen MM, Woloshchuk CJ, Riley AL. An assessment of sex differences in Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) taste and place conditioning. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2016; 153:69-75. [PMID: 27986515 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Briana J Hempel
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA.
| | - Alison G P Wakeford
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Katharine H Nelson
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Matthew M Clasen
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Claudia J Woloshchuk
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA
| | - Anthony L Riley
- Psychopharmacology Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, D.C. 20016, USA.
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