Compliance With Standard Therapies and Remission Rates After Implementation of an Infantile Spasms Management Guideline

Timing the clinical onset of epileptic spasms in infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: A tertiary health center's experience

OBJECTIVE

Lead time to treatment (clinical onset of epileptic spasms [ES] to initiation of appropriate treatment) is known to predict outcomes in infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS). Timing the clinical onset of ES is crucial to establish lead time. We investigated how often ES onset could be established to the nearest week. We aimed to (1) ascertain the exact date or estimate the nearest week of ES onset and (2) compare clinical/demographic factors between patients where date of ES onset was determined or estimated to the nearest week and patients whose date of ES onset could not be estimated to the nearest week. Reasons for difficulties in estimating date of ES onset were explored.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review of new onset IESS patients (January 2019-May 2022) extracted the date or week of the clinical onset of ES. Predictors of difficulty in date of ES onset estimation to the nearest week were examined by regression analysis. Sources contributing to difficulties determining date of ES onset were assessed after grouping into categories (provider-, caregiver-, disease-related).

RESULTS

Among 100 patients, date of ES onset was estimated to the nearest week in 47%. On univariable analysis, age at diagnosis (p = .021), development delay (p = .007), developmental regression/stagnation (p = .021), ES intermixed with other seizures (p = .011), and nonclustered ES at onset (p = .005) were associated with difficulties estimating date of ES onset. On multivariable analysis, failure to establish date of ES onset was related to ES intermixed with other seizures (p = .004) and nonclustered ES at onset (p = .003). Sources contributing to difficulties determining date of ES onset included disease-related factors (ES characteristics, challenges interpreting electroencephalograms) and provider/caregiver-related factors (delayed diagnosis).

SIGNIFICANCE

Difficulties with estimation of lead time (due to difficulties timing ES onset) can impact clinical care (prognostication), as even small increments in lead time duration can have adverse developmental consequences.

Mechanisms of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: What have we learned from animal models?

The devastating developmental and epileptic encephalopathy of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) has numerous causes, including, but not limited to, brain injury, metabolic, and genetic conditions. Given the stereotyped electrophysiologic, age-dependent, and clinical findings, there likely exists one or more final common pathways in the development of IESS. The identity of this final common pathway is unknown, but it may represent a novel therapeutic target for infantile spasms. Previous research on IESS has focused largely on identifying the neuroanatomic substrate using specialized neuroimaging techniques and cerebrospinal fluid analysis in human patients. Over the past three decades, several animal models of IESS were created with an aim to interrogate the underlying pathogenesis of IESS, to identify novel therapeutic targets, and to test various treatments. Each of these models have been successful at recapitulating multiple aspects of the human IESS condition. These animal models have implicated several different molecular pathways in the development of infantile spasms. In this review we outline the progress that has been made thus far using these animal models and discuss future directions to help researchers identify novel treatments for drug-resistant IESS.

Efficacy of vigabatrin in the treatment of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the efficacy of vigabatrin (VGB) in treating infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS). Databases of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Library were systematically searched. All the relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies (OSs) of VGB for IESS were included and analyzed separately. The primary outcome was the cessation of epileptic spasms (ES). Five RCTs and nine OSs compared the efficacy of VGB vs hormonal monotherapy for IESS. Meta-analysis of the five RCTs showed that hormonal monotherapy was significantly better than VGB monotherapy (OR = 0.37, 95% CI = 0.20-0.67) for patients with new-onset IESS. Meta-analysis of the nine OSs agrees with the result from RCTs (OR = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.43-0.85). VGB was more effective in patients with TSC than in those with other etiologies (five OSs, OR = 5.59, 95% CI = 2.17-14.41). There was no significant difference in the efficiency of VGB combined with hormonal therapy vs hormonal monotherapy for IESS (two RCTs, OR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.09-6.45). Hormonal monotherapy is better than VGB monotherapy for non-TSC-associated IESS. But for patients with IESS due to TSC, VGB is the first choice. VGB combined with hormone therapy does not definitely increase ES control rates compared with that of hormonal monotherapy.

Long-term outcomes of infantile spasms in children treated with ketogenic diet therapy in combination with anti-seizure medications in a resource-limited region

Objective

Despite numerous guidelines, the overall outcome of infantile spasms is poor, with only a small number of patients being able to attend school. The purpose of this study was to investigate long-term outcomes. Patients had poor access to the recommended first-line anti-seizure medications (ASMs), such as hormones (corticotropin or prednisolone/prednisone) and vigabatrin, and their alternative treatment was other ASMs and a ketogenic diet.

Methods

Patients suffering from infantile spasms who had at least 2 years of medical records in the electronic medical record system between January 2014 and August 2022 were included in this study. Patient information was retrospectively reviewed. All patients had received ketogenic diet therapy (mainly classical ketogenic diet therapy). The ketogenic diet therapy was combined with ASMs not used as first-line therapies. The primary endpoint outcome measure was the number of patients with seizure freedom. The secondary measures included the duration of ketogenic diet therapy, choice of ASMs, and patient development at the last visit.

Results

A total of 177 patients with infantile spasms were included, and 152 (86%) of them had seizure freedom. The median duration from the first to the last hospital visit was 53.27 months, and the number of visits was 47.00. The median age at the initial hospital visit was 8.00 months, and the median age at initiation of the ketogenic diet was 17.73 months. At the last visit, the proportions of patients with neurodevelopmental delay, developmental epileptic encephalopathy, drug-resistant epilepsy, and generalized seizures increased significantly. The frequently used ASMs were topiramate, valproic acid, levetiracetam, nitrazepam, and vitamin B6 injection, while the recommended first-line drugs corticotropin and vigabatrin were rarely selected. The study duration of 9.5 years was divided into three periods but the prescription of ASMs did not change significantly between these periods.

Conclusions

Although the seizure freedom rate was high with ketogenic diet therapy combined with non-standard ASMs, the patients had a significant neurodevelopmental delay at the last visit, which was, however, similar to that of standard treatment. To improve the outcomes of infantile spasms, multicenter clinical trials of the ketogenic diet as a first-line treatment in combination with non-standard ASMs are needed.

EEG biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of infantile spasms

Early diagnosis and treatment are critical for young children with infantile spasms (IS), as this maximizes the possibility of the best possible child-specific outcome. However, there are major barriers to achieving this, including high rates of misdiagnosis or failure to recognize the seizures, medication failure, and relapse. There are currently no validated tools to aid clinicians in assessing objective diagnostic criteria, predicting or measuring medication response, or predicting the likelihood of relapse. However, the pivotal role of EEG in the clinical management of IS has prompted many recent studies of potential EEG biomarkers of the disease. These include both visual EEG biomarkers based on human visual interpretation of the EEG and computational EEG biomarkers in which computers calculate quantitative features of the EEG. Here, we review the literature on both types of biomarkers, organized based on the application (diagnosis, treatment response, prediction, etc.). Visual biomarkers include the assessment of hypsarrhythmia, epileptiform discharges, fast oscillations, and the Burden of AmplitudeS and Epileptiform Discharges (BASED) score. Computational markers include EEG amplitude and power spectrum, entropy, functional connectivity, high frequency oscillations (HFOs), long-range temporal correlations, and phase-amplitude coupling. We also introduce each of the computational measures and provide representative examples. Finally, we highlight remaining gaps in the literature, describe practical guidelines for future biomarker discovery and validation studies, and discuss remaining roadblocks to clinical implementation, with the goal of facilitating future work in this critical area.

Inequities in therapy for infantile spasms: a call to action

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether selection of treatment for children with infantile spasms (IS) varies by race/ethnicity.

METHODS

The prospective US National Infantile Spasms Consortium database includes children with IS treated from 2012-2018. We examined the relationship between race/ethnicity and receipt of standard IS therapy (prednisolone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, vigabatrin), adjusting for demographic and clinical variables using logistic regression. Our primary outcome was treatment course, which considered therapy prescribed for the first and, when needed, the second IS treatment together.

RESULTS

Of 555 children, 324 (58%) were Non-Hispanic white, 55 (10%) Non-Hispanic Black, 24 (4%) Non-Hispanic Asian, 80 (14%) Hispanic, and 72 (13%) Other/Unknown. Most (398, 72%) received a standard treatment course. Insurance type, geographic location, history of prematurity, prior seizures, developmental delay or regression, abnormal head circumference, hypsarrhythmia, and IS etiologies were associated with standard therapy. In adjusted models, Non-Hispanic Black children had lower odds of receiving a standard treatment course compared with Non-Hispanic white children (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.20-0.89, p = 0.02). Adjusted models also showed that children with public (vs. private) insurance had lower odds of receiving standard therapy for treatment 1 (OR 0.42, CI 0.21-0.84, p = 0.01).

INTERPRETATION

Non-Hispanic Black children were more often treated with non-standard IS therapies than Non-Hispanic white children. Likewise, children with public (vs. private) insurance were less likely to receive standard therapies. Investigating drivers of inequities, and understanding the impact of racism on treatment decisions, are critical next steps to improve care for patients with IS. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Infantile spasms: assessing the diagnostic yield of an institutional guideline and the impact of etiology on long-term treatment response

OBJECTIVE

Neuroimaging and genetic testing have been proposed for diagnostic evaluation of infantile spasms (IS), establishing etiology in ~60% of multicenter IS cohorts. A retrospective analysis of the yield of diagnostic etiology following an institutionally established guideline for investigation/treatment of IS was conducted, and the association between etiological subgroups and sustained response to standard treatment was evaluated.

METHODS

Etiology of IS, neuroimaging, and genetic results were extracted from clinical records. Etiology was categorized as acquired or non-acquired, the latter including syndromic patients, non-syndromic patients with confirmed etiology, and unknown cases. Regression analyses, using clinical variables including subtypes of etiology, were conducted to determine which factors correlated with favorable (spasms freedom at last follow-up after ≤ 2 standard treatments) versus unfavorable treatment outcome (refractory spasms despite two standard treatments or relapse).

RESULTS

We included 127 IS patients (60% males) with a follow-up of 2.4 years (range 0.6-5 years). All patients had neuroimaging, and 95% of patients in the non-acquired category (103 of 108 patients) had genetic testing. Etiology was identified in 103/127 (81%, CI-0.73-0.86). At last follow-up, 42 (33%) patients had favorable treatment outcome. No difference in treatment response was observed between acquired and non-acquired etiologies. Among patients with non-acquired etiologies, developmental delay prior to spasms onset increased the odds of unfavorable treatment outcome (p=0.014) while a clearly recognizable dysmorphic/syndromic etiology was associated with a lower risk for treatment failure (p=0.034). In non-acquired etiology without a recognizable dysmorphic/syndrome but with a genetic etiology, unfavorable treatment outcome was more likely (p=0.043).

SIGNIFICANCE

Rigorous evaluation with neuroimaging and genetic testing yields an etiological diagnosis in most patients with IS. Among patients with a non-acquired etiology, those with recognizable dysmorphic/syndromic diagnosis had a higher likelihood of a favorable treatment outcome, while the absence of such a finding, when associated with an identifiable genetic diagnosis, was associated with unfavorable treatment outcomes.

Confirmation of infantile spasms resolution by prolonged outpatient EEGs

OBJECTIVE

There is no consensus on the type or duration of the posttreatment EEG needed for assessing treatment response for infantile spasms (IS). We assessed whether outpatient electroencephalograms (EEGs) are sufficient to confirm infantile spasms (IS) treatment response.

METHODS

Three-year retrospective review identified new-onset IS patients. Only presumed responder to IS treatment at 2 weeks with a prolonged (>90 minutes) outpatient EEG to assess treatment response and at least 3-month follow-up were included. Hypsarrhythmia, electroclinical spasms, and sleep were evaluated for the first hour and for the duration of the EEG.

RESULTS

We included 37 consecutive patients with new-onset IS and presumed clinical response at 2 weeks posttreatment. Follow-up outpatient prolonged EEGs (median: 150 minutes, range: 90-240 minutes) were obtained 14 days (IQR: 13-17) after treatment initiation. EEGs detected ongoing IS in 11 of 37 (30%) presumed early responders. Prolonged outpatient EEG had a sensitivity of 85% (confidence interval [CI] 55%-98%) for detecting treatment failure. When hypsarrhythmia and/or electroclinical spasms were not seen, EEG had a negative predictive value 92% (CI: 75%-99%) for confirming continued IS resolution. Outpatient EEG combined with clinical assessment, however, identified all treatment failures at 2 weeks. Compared with the entire prolonged EEG, the first-hour recording missed IS in 45% (5/11). While sleep was captured in 95% (35/37) of the full EEG recording, the first hour of recording captured sleep in only 54% (20/37).

SIGNIFICANCE

Infantile spasms treatment response can be confirmed with a clinical history of spasm freedom and an outpatient prolonged EEG without evidence for ongoing spasms (hypsarrhythmia/electroclinical spams on EEG). Outpatient prolonged EEG, but not routine EEGs, represents an alternative to inpatient long-term monitoring for IS posttreatment EEG follow-up.

Improving Management of Infantile Spasms by Adopting Implementation Science

Over the last several decades, significant progress has been made in the discovery of appropriate therapy in the management of infantile spasms (IS). Based on several well-controlled studies, the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society have published the current best practice parameters for the treatment of IS. However, dissemination and implementation of evidence-based guidelines remain a significant challenge. Though the number of well-performed controlled trials and systematic reviews is increasing exponentially, the proportion of valuable new information subsequently embedding into the routine clinical care is significantly lower. Planned and systematic implementation of evidence-based interventions in a given health care structure may outstrip the benefits of discovering a new insight, procedure, or drug in another controlled setting. Implementation problems can be broad-ranging to hinder effective, efficient, safe, timely, and patient-centered care without significant variation. The first part of this review article provides a detailed summary of some crucial comparative treatment studies of IS available in the literature. In the second part, practical challenges to mitigate the gap between knowledge and practice to improve outcomes in the management of IS has been explored, and a consolidated framework approach for systematic implementation research methodology has been discussed to implement evidence-based guidelines for the management of IS. Although large multicenter controlled studies will help gather quality evidence in the treatment of IS, a more comprehensive range of scientific methodologies, including qualitative research and mixed research methodologies, will hold the more considerable promise for implementing evidence-based practices in the health care system.

Care Delivery for Children With Epilepsy During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An International Survey of Clinicians

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on global access to care and practice patterns for children with epilepsy.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional, online survey of pediatric neurologists across the world affiliated with the International Child Neurology Association, the Chinese Child Neurology Society, the Child Neurology Society, and the Pediatric Epilepsy Research Consortium. Results were analyzed in relation to regional burden of COVID-19 disease.

RESULTS

From April 10 to 24, 2020, a sample of 212 respondents from 49 countries indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically changed many aspects of pediatric epilepsy care, with 91.5% reporting changes to outpatient care, 90.6% with reduced access to electroencephalography (EEG), 37.4% with altered management of infantile spasms, 92.3% with restrictions in ketogenic diet initiation, 93.4% with closed or severely limited epilepsy monitoring units, and 91.3% with canceled or limited epilepsy surgery. Telehealth use had increased, with 24.7% seeing patients exclusively via telehealth. Changes in practice were related both to COVID-19 burden and location.

CONCLUSIONS

In response to COVID-19, pediatric epilepsy programs have implemented crisis standards of care that include increased telemedicine, decreased EEG use, changes in treatments of infantile spasms, and cessation of epilepsy surgery. The long-term impact of these abrupt changes merit careful study.

COVID-19: A Review for the Pediatric Neurologist

Children are susceptible to infection with the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. In this time of uncertainty, this review attempts to compile information that may be helpful to pediatric neurologists. This review consolidates current data on the disease associated with SARS-CoV-2, called COVID-19, and information from past coronavirus epidemics, to discuss diseases of pediatric neurology including Guillain-Barre syndrome (acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy); central demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; infantile spasms; febrile seizures; and maternal-fetal transmission of virus.

Management of Infantile Spasms During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic have mandated a change to standard management of infantile spasms. On April 6, 2020, the Child Neurology Society issued an online statement of immediate recommendations to streamline diagnosis and treatment of infantile spasms with utilization of telemedicine, outpatient studies, and selection of first-line oral therapies as initial treatment. The rationale for the recommendations and specific guidance including follow-up assessment are provided in this manuscript. These recommendations are indicated as enduring if intended to outlast the pandemic, and limited if intended only for the pandemic health care crisis but may be applicable to future disruptions of health care delivery.