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Williams TL, Patterson LB, Heyes AR, Staff HR, Boardley ID, Petróczi A, Backhouse SH. Barriers and enablers in doping, anti-doping, and clean sport: A qualitative meta-synthesis informed by the theoretical domains framework and COM-B model. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024; 72:102608. [PMID: 38360079 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
To protect the integrity of sport, and the health of athletes, global anti-doping programmes seek to prevent doping, and elicit anti-doping and clean sport behaviours, through education, deterrence, detection, enforcement, and rules. To guide programme development, this meta-synthesis of qualitative research applied a behavioural science framework to identify barriers and enablers to doping, anti-doping, and clean sport. A systematic search of electronic databases up to May 2022, followed by critical appraisal, resulted in 73 included articles. Fifty-two articles reported the athlete perspective, thirteen included athletes, athlete support personnel (ASP), and other experts, and eight focused on ASP only. Rigorous methods of thematic synthesis were drawn upon to construct analytical themes in line with the theoretical domains framework (TDF) and the capability, opportunity, and motivation model of behaviour (COM-B). A wide range of barriers and enablers were identified which influenced capability, opportunity, and motivation to participate in a clean sport environment. The weight of evidence pointed to limitations in the current anti-doping education system in providing athletes and ASP with the knowledge and skills to protect against doping, as well as the significant influence of social and cultural norms in shaping doping and clean sport behaviours through a shared social identity, and risky contexts leading to moments of vulnerability to doping. We identified a need for anti-doping programmes to move beyond the current focus on athlete capability, and address the opportunity and motivation components of clean sport behaviours through a targeted and tailored focus on education, training, persuasion, modelling and environmental restructuring interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni L Williams
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University, UK; Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, UK.
| | | | | | - Helen R Staff
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, UK.
| | - Ian D Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK.
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, UK; Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary.
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Friehs MA, Klarkowski M, Frommel J, Phillips C, Mandryk RL. Fighting fair: community perspectives on the fairness of performance enhancement in esports. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1330755. [PMID: 38532852 PMCID: PMC10963441 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1330755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Aims This study aims to explore community perspectives on enhancer usage in competitive gaming and esports, focusing on the perception of fairness and concerns about various potential performance enhancers. Methods We conducted both qualitative and quantitative surveys to understand the competitive gaming community's opinions on different types of performance enhancers and their potential impact on esports. A thematic analysis was performed to identify key themes in how players rationalize their opinions. Conclusions The gaming community differentiates between potential performance enhancers based on how problematic they are for the esports scene, with the most concern surrounding hard drugs, pharmaceuticals, and brain stimulation interventions. Participants who are more invested in competitive gaming tend to be more sceptical of enhancers and express greater concerns. Four themes were identified in the thematic analysis: (1) risk, (2) morality, (3) enhancer effects, and (4) regulation. To increase acceptance and perceived legitimacy in decision-making, it is recommended that regulators engage a variety of stakeholders in transparent decision-making processes when forming tournament rules and regulations. This will help address the fragmented regulatory landscape and prevent potential differences in the perception of tournament winners based on the governing body supervising the competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian A. Friehs
- Psychology of Conflict Risk and Safety, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Madison Klarkowski
- Human-Computer Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julian Frommel
- Interaction Media Group, Information and Computing Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Cody Phillips
- Human-Computer Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Regan L. Mandryk
- Faculty of Computer Science, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
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Blockchain for Doping Control Applications in Sports: A Conceptual Approach. FUTURE INTERNET 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fi14070210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Doping is a well-known problem in competitive sports. Along the years, several cases have come to public, evidencing corrupt practices from within the sports environment. To guarantee fair play and prevent public health issues, anti-doping organizations and sports authorities are expected to cooperate in the fight against doping. To achieve this mission, doping-related data must be produced, stored, accessed, and shared in a secure, tamperproof, and privacy-preserving manner. This paper investigates the processes and tools established by the World Anti-Doping Agency for the global harmonization of doping control activities. From this investigation, it is possible to conclude that there is an inherent trust problem, in part due to a centralized data management paradigm and to the lack of fully digitalized processes. Therefore, this paper presents two main contributions: the concept of a multiorganizational decentralized data governance model and a blockchain-based design for one of the most sensitive data-sharing processes within the anti-doping ecosystem. Throughout this article, it is shown that the adoption of a permissioned blockchain can benefit the whole anti-doping community, creating more reliable processes for handling data, where privacy and security are enhanced.
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Woolway T, Elbe AM, Barkoukis V, Bingham K, Bochaver K, Bondarev D, Hudson A, Kronenberg L, Lazuras L, Mallia L, Ntovolis Y, Zelli A, Petróczi A. One Does Not Fit All: European Study Shows Significant Differences in Value-Priorities in Clean Sport. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:662542. [PMID: 34109312 PMCID: PMC8181163 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.662542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Doping violates the Spirit of Sport and is thought to contradict the values which underpin this spirit. Values-based education (VBE) has been cited as a key element for creating a clean sport culture across age groups. Culturally relevant VBE requires understanding of the values that motivate athletes from different countries to practice their sport and uphold clean sport values. WADA's new International Standards for Education makes this study both needed and timely. Overall, 1,225 athletes from Germany, Greece, Italy, Russia, and the UK responded to measures assessing their general values, Spirit of Sport values, and their perceived importance of “clean sport”. MaxDiff analysis identified the most important values to participants based on their respective country of residence. Correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between importance of clean sport and Spirit of Sport values. There were significant differences between participant nationality and their perceived importance of clean sport [F(4, 1,204) = 797.060, p < 0.000], the most important general values (p < 0.05), and Spirit of Sport values (p < 0.05). Moderate positive correlations were observed between the perceived importance of clean sport and honesty and ethics (r = 0.538, p < 0.005) and respecting the rules of sport (r = 0.507, p < 0.005). When designing the values-based component of anti-doping education programs, athletes' different value-priorities across countries should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Woolway
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anne-Marie Elbe
- Institute for Sport Psychology and Sport Pedagogy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kevin Bingham
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantin Bochaver
- Laboratory of Sport Psychology, Moscow Institute of Psychoanalysis, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitriy Bondarev
- Institute of Living Systems, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russia
| | - Andy Hudson
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lara Kronenberg
- Institute for Sport Psychology and Sport Pedagogy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lambros Lazuras
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Mallia
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Science, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Yannis Ntovolis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Science, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Movement Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Petróczi A, Backhouse SH, Boardley ID, Saugy M, Pitsiladis Y, Viret M, Ioannidis G, Ohl F, Loland S, McNamee M. 'Clean athlete status' cannot be certified: Calling for caution, evidence and transparency in 'alternative' anti-doping systems. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2020; 93:103030. [PMID: 33250439 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Athletes, sponsors and sport organisations all have a vested interest in upholding the values of clean sport. Despite the considerable and concerted efforts of the global anti-doping system over two decades, the present system is imperfect. Capitalising upon consequent frustrations of athletes, event organisers and sponsors, alternative anti-doping systems have emerged outside the global regulatory framework. The operating principles of these systems raise several concerns, notably including accountability, legitimacy and fairness to athletes. In this paper, we scrutinise the Clean Protocol™, which is the most comprehensive alternative system, for its shortcomings through detailed analysis of its alleged logical and scientific merits. Specifically, we draw the attention of the anti-doping community - including researchers and practitioners - to the potential pitfalls of using assessment tools beyond the scope for which they have been validated, and implementing new approaches without validation. Further, we argue that whilst protecting clean sport is critically important to all stakeholders, protocols that put athletes in disadvantageous positions and/or pose risks to their professional and personal lives lack legitimacy. We criticise the use of anti-doping data and scientific research out of context, and highlight unintended harms that are likely to arise from the widespread implementation of such protocols in parallel with - or in place of - the existing global anti-doping framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | - Susan H Backhouse
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Ian D Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Martial Saugy
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yannis Pitsiladis
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, United Kingdom
| | - Marjolaine Viret
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Ioannidis
- Department of Law & Criminology, Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Ohl
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sigmund Loland
- Department of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Norway
| | - Mike McNamee
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Belgium; School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Swansea University, United Kingdom
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Liokaftos D. Defining and defending drug-free bodybuilding: A current perspective from organisations and their key figures. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2018; 60:47-55. [PMID: 30099331 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs in the past seventy years or so has sparked a number of responses, including heated public debates, the creation of dedicated organisations and drug policies, as well as the emergence of communities of practice and belief in support of or in opposition to the phenomenon. Drug-free, known in the field as 'natural', bodybuilding has been developing since the 1970 s as a response to a dominant bodybuilding culture where the use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs has become normalised. Recent years have seen a multiplication of national and international governing bodies, competitions, and participants in drug-free bodybuilding in different parts of the globe. As the field grows, the questions of what constitutes natural bodybuilding and who can authentically represent it become central. Adopting a multi-method, qualitative approach, this article explores the ways organisations and their key figures define and defend their versions of drug-free bodybuilding. The discussion focus is on the policies, meanings and identities embedded in these different versions, and how their production and negotiation makes sense in light of antagonisms between players in the field of natural bodybuilding as well as their relation to drug-enhanced bodybuilding and the wider world of sport. In examining this previously uncharted body culture, the article explores how the use of performance- and image-enhancing drugs provokes responses and processes of contestation and differentiation. In the process, what becomes apparent is the designation and negotiation of drug-free, natural bodies as an ongoing, dynamic, social process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Liokaftos
- Aarhus University, Department of Public Health, 4 Dalgas Avenue, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark.
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Loland S. Performance-Enhancing Drugs, Sport, and the Ideal of Natural Athletic Performance. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOETHICS : AJOB 2018; 18:8-15. [PMID: 29852101 DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2018.1459934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The use of certain performance-enhancing drugs (PED) is banned in sport. I discuss critically standard justifications of the ban based on arguments from two widely used criteria: fairness and harms to health. I argue that these arguments on their own are inadequate, and only make sense within a normative understanding of athletic performance and the value of sport. In the discourse over PED, the distinction between "natural" and "artificial" performance has exerted significant impact. I examine whether the distinction makes sense from a moral point of view. I propose an understanding of "natural" athletic performance by combining biological knowledge of training with an interpretation of the normative structure of sport. I conclude that this understanding can serve as moral justification of the PED ban and enable critical and analytically based line drawing between acceptable and nonacceptable performance-enhancing means in sport.
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