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Williams TL, Patterson LB, Heyes AR, Staff HR, Boardley ID, Petróczi A, Backhouse SH. Barriers and enablers in doping, anti-doping, and clean sport: A qualitative meta-synthesis informed by the theoretical domains framework and COM-B model. Psychol Sport Exerc 2024; 72:102608. [PMID: 38360079 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
To protect the integrity of sport, and the health of athletes, global anti-doping programmes seek to prevent doping, and elicit anti-doping and clean sport behaviours, through education, deterrence, detection, enforcement, and rules. To guide programme development, this meta-synthesis of qualitative research applied a behavioural science framework to identify barriers and enablers to doping, anti-doping, and clean sport. A systematic search of electronic databases up to May 2022, followed by critical appraisal, resulted in 73 included articles. Fifty-two articles reported the athlete perspective, thirteen included athletes, athlete support personnel (ASP), and other experts, and eight focused on ASP only. Rigorous methods of thematic synthesis were drawn upon to construct analytical themes in line with the theoretical domains framework (TDF) and the capability, opportunity, and motivation model of behaviour (COM-B). A wide range of barriers and enablers were identified which influenced capability, opportunity, and motivation to participate in a clean sport environment. The weight of evidence pointed to limitations in the current anti-doping education system in providing athletes and ASP with the knowledge and skills to protect against doping, as well as the significant influence of social and cultural norms in shaping doping and clean sport behaviours through a shared social identity, and risky contexts leading to moments of vulnerability to doping. We identified a need for anti-doping programmes to move beyond the current focus on athlete capability, and address the opportunity and motivation components of clean sport behaviours through a targeted and tailored focus on education, training, persuasion, modelling and environmental restructuring interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toni L Williams
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University, UK; Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, UK.
| | | | | | - Helen R Staff
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, UK.
| | - Ian D Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK.
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, UK; Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary.
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Veltmaat A, Dreiskämper D, Brueckner S, Bondarev D, Heyes A, Barkoukis V, Elbe AM, Lazuras L, De Maria A, Zelli A, Petróczi A. Context matters: athletes' perception of dopers' values, actions and vulnerabilities. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1229679. [PMID: 38162700 PMCID: PMC10757837 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1229679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Although athletes seem to hold uniform views towards non-dopers, their perception of dopers is more nuanced, reflecting positive and negative attributes. Research also indicates that rarely a single factor can explain doping, but a host of reasons that intertwine. A holistic understanding of how values play a role in decisions in anti-doping and the elements that influence athletes' doping vulnerability is timely and warranted. Methods We recruited elite athletes from 13 countries representing 27 sports at a national or international level (N = 60) to participate as part of a larger research project. Data were collected via focus group interviews focusing on values, value priorities and perceptions about the role of values in doping as a phenomenon and in dopers' actions. Data were analysed using iterative thematic analysis. Results Three themes were identified: (1) athletes' personal stance on doping, (2) dopers in the eyes of the anti-doping-compliant athletes, and (3) doping vulnerability is a balance. Athletes in this study strongly opposed doping but showed empathy and understanding toward athletes who doped under certain circumstances. Furthermore, athletes believed that "clean" and "doping" athletes are not always distinguished by the values they hold, leading to the realisation that all athletes can be vulnerable to doping at some point. This vulnerability is a balance between risks and protective factors in a complex interaction between environmental, personal, and situational influences. Each element (e.g., values, environment) can be a motivator or a barrier. Consequently, doping vulnerability is highly idiosyncratic and dynamic. Conclusion If doping is not due to a lack of moral values but the consequences of combined risk factors that override the guiding function of values, then doping can happen to anyone, "good" athletes included. Developers and facilitators of anti-doping education programmes are advised to embrace this important aspect. The results also contribute to developing the doping vulnerability concept as a balance between risks and protective factors and draw attention to the clean athlete vulnerability, which is rooted in the combination of strategic performance enhancement via non-prohibited means, their exposure to anti-doping requirements and the constant high level of suspicion that surrounds them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalena Veltmaat
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Dennis Dreiskämper
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sebastian Brueckner
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Dmitriy Bondarev
- Institute of Medicine and Life Sciences, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russia
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Data and Marketing Analytics Department, SSM Sisä-Suomi Oy, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Andrew Heyes
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anne-Marie Elbe
- Department of Sport Psychology, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lambros Lazuras
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandra De Maria
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Education & Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
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Skauen JE, Pallesen S, Bjørnebekk A, Chegeni R, Syvertsen A, Petróczi A, Sagoe D. Prevalence and correlates of androgen dependence: a meta-analysis, meta-regression analysis and qualitative synthesis. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2023; 30:309-323. [PMID: 37410490 DOI: 10.1097/med.0000000000000822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To investigate the prevalence and correlates of androgen dependence among users. A meta-analysis, meta-regression analysis, and qualitative synthesis were conducted based on a systematic literature search in Google Scholar, ISO Web of Science, PsycNET, and PubMed. RECENT FINDINGS Twenty-six studies were included in the review and 18 studies ( N = 1782) in the statistical analysis. The overall lifetime androgen dependence prevalence was 34.4% [95% confidence interval (CI): 27.8-41.7, Q = 113.1, I2 = 85.0, P < 0.001]. Although males (36.1%, P < 0.001) and females (37.0%, P = 0.188) did not differ ( Q = 0.0, P = 0.930) in dependence prevalence, controlling for other study characteristics, higher study male sample proportion was related to higher dependence prevalence. Combined interview and questionnaire assessments showed higher prevalence compared to interviews only. Publications from 1990-1999 generated higher prevalence compared to 2000-2009 and 2010-2023 publications. Dependents were associated with a wide array of demographic inequalities, and biophysical, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial problems. SUMMARY One of three persons who initiate androgen use experiences dependence along with various serious disorders. Androgen use and dependence should be considered an important public health issue requiring targeted health interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Eriksrød Skauen
- Department of Psychosocial Science
- Human Enhancement and Body Image Lab (HEBI Lab), Addiction Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen
| | - Ståle Pallesen
- Department of Psychosocial Science
- Human Enhancement and Body Image Lab (HEBI Lab), Addiction Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen
| | - Astrid Bjørnebekk
- Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Research Group, Section for Clinical Addiction Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital
| | - Razieh Chegeni
- Human Enhancement and Body Image Lab (HEBI Lab), Addiction Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen
- PROMENTA Research Center, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - André Syvertsen
- Department of Psychosocial Science
- Human Enhancement and Body Image Lab (HEBI Lab), Addiction Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, UK
- Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science
- Human Enhancement and Body Image Lab (HEBI Lab), Addiction Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen
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Petróczi A, Nolte K, Schneider AJA. Editorial: Women in anti-doping sciences & integrity in sport: 2021/22. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1248720. [PMID: 37496881 PMCID: PMC10368458 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1248720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health Promotion and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Kim Nolte
- Department of Physiology, Division of Biokinetics and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Angela Jo-Anne Schneider
- School of Kinesiology, International Centre for Olympic Studies, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Hurst P, Schiphof-Godart L, Kavussanu M, Barkoukis V, Petróczi A, Ring C. Are dietary supplement users more likely to dope than non-users?: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Drug Policy 2023; 117:104077. [PMID: 37267738 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, a body of evidence has reported that dietary supplement use is related to prohibited performance enhancing substance use (i.e., doping). To help international and national sport organisations understand the degree to which dietary supplement use is related to doping, the objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to 1) compare the prevalence of doping between dietary supplement users and non-users and 2) identify whether supplement use is related to doping social cognitive factors. We searched for studies sampling athletes and that measured both dietary supplement use and doping in EMBASE, MEDLINE, PsychINFO, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus from database creation to May 2022. Risk of bias was assessed using JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for cross-sectional studies and the STROBE checklist. Twenty-six cross-sectional studies, involving 13,296 athletes were included. Random-effect models revealed that doping was 2.74 (95% CI=2.10 to 3.57) times more prevalent in dietary supplement users (pooled prevalence = 14.7%) than non-users (6.7%), and that users reported stronger doping intentions (r=0.26, 0.18 to 0.34) and attitudes (r=0.21, 0.13 to 0.28) compared to non-users. Preliminary evidence also suggests that dietary supplement users were less likely to dope if they were more task oriented and had a stronger sense of morality. Results of the review are limited by the cross-sectional design used in all studies and lack of consistency in measurement of dietary supplement use and doping. Data indicate that athletes using dietary supplements are more likely to self-report doping Anti-doping policy should, therefore, target dietary supplement use in anti-doping education programmes by providing alternative strategies for performance enhancement or highlighting the safest ways they can be consumed. Similarly, as a large proportion of athletes use dietary supplements without doping, further research is needed to understand the factors that protect a dietary supplement user from doping. No funding was received for the review. A study protocol can be found here: https://osf.io/xvcaq.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Hurst
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
| | - Lieke Schiphof-Godart
- Department of Medical Informatics, University Medical Centre Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Kavussanu
- School of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Health Promotion & Sport Sciences, Eötvös Lóránd Tudományegyetem (ELTE), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Christopher Ring
- School of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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Petróczi A, Cruyff M, de Hon O, Sagoe D, Saugy M. Corrigendum: Hidden figures: Revisiting doping prevalence estimates previously reported for two major international sport events in the context of further empirical evidence and the extant literature. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1129320. [PMID: 36798089 PMCID: PMC9928175 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1129320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1017329.].
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom,Department of Movement Sciences, Faculty of Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit (KU) Leuven, Leuven, Belgium,Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany,Correspondence: Andrea Petróczi
| | - Maarten Cruyff
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Olivier de Hon
- Doping Authority Netherlands, Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands
| | - Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Martial Saugy
- Research and Expertise in anti-Doping Sciences (REDs), Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Sayed KHA, Cruyff MJLF, van der Heijden PGM, Petróczi A. Refinement of the extended crosswise model with a number sequence randomizer: Evidence from three different studies in the UK. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0279741. [PMID: 36584205 PMCID: PMC9803288 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The Extended Crosswise Model (ECWM) is a randomized response model with neutral response categories, relatively simple instructions, and the availability of a goodness-of-fit test. This paper refines this model with a number sequence randomizer that virtually precludes the possibility to give evasive responses. The motivation for developing this model stems from a strategic priority of WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) to monitor the prevalence of doping use by elite athletes. For this model we derived a maximum likelihood estimator that allows for binary logistic regression analysis. Three studies were conducted on online platforms with a total of over 6, 000 respondents; two on controlled substance use and one on compliance with COVID-19 regulations in the UK during the first lockdown. The results of these studies are promising. The goodness-of-fit tests showed little to no evidence for response biases, and the ECWM yielded higher prevalence estimates than direct questions for sensitive questions, and similar ones for non-sensitive questions. Furthermore, the randomizer with the shortest number sequences yielded the smallest response error rates on a control question with known prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadiga H. A. Sayed
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Statistics, Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Peter G. M. van der Heijden
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Social Statistics and Demography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Petróczi A, Cruyff M, de Hon O, Sagoe D, Saugy M. Hidden figures: Revisiting doping prevalence estimates previously reported for two major international sport events in the context of further empirical evidence and the extant literature. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:1017329. [PMID: 36544544 PMCID: PMC9760848 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1017329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background High levels of admitted doping use (43.6% and 57.1%) were reported for two international sport events in 2011. Because these are frequently referenced in evaluating aspects of anti-doping, having high level of confidence in these estimates is paramount. Objectives In this study, we present new prevalence estimates from a concurrently administered method, the Single Sample Count (SSC), and critically review the two sets of estimates in the context of other doping prevalence estimates. Methods The survey featuring the SSC model was completed by 1,203 athletes at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics (WCA) (65.3% of all participating athletes) and 954 athletes at the 2011 Pan-Arab Games (PAG) (28.2% of all participating athletes). At WCA, athletes completed both UQM and SSC surveys in randomised order. At PAG, athletes were randomly allocated to one of the two surveys. Doping was defined as "having knowingly violated anti-doping regulations by using a prohibited substance or method." Results Estimates with the SSC model for 12-month doping prevalence were 21.2% (95% CI: 9.69-32.7) at WCA and 10.6% (95% CI: 1.76-19.4) at PAG. Estimated herbal, mineral, and/or vitamin supplements use was 8.57% (95% CI: 1.3-16.11) at PAG. Reliability of the estimates were confirmed with re-sampling method (n = 1,000, 80% of the sample). Survey non-compliance (31.90%, 95%CI: 26.28-37.52; p < 0.0001) was detected in the WCA data but occurred to a lesser degree at PAG (9.85%, 95% CI: 4.01-15.69, p = 0.0144 and 11.43%, 95% CI: 5.31-11.55, p = 0.0196, for doping and nutritional supplement use, respectively). A large discrepancy between those previously reported from the UQM and the prevalence rate estimated by the SSC model for the same population is evident. Conclusion Caution in interpreting these estimates as bona fide prevalence rates is warranted. Critical appraisal of the obtained prevalence rates and triangulation with other sources are recommended over "the higher rate must be closer to the truth" heuristics. Non-compliance appears to be the Achilles heel of the indirect estimation models thus it should be routinely tested for and minimised. Further research into cognitive and behaviour aspects, including motivation for honesty, is needed to improve the ecological validity of the estimated prevalence rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Health, Science, Social Care and Education, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom,Department of Movement Sciences, Faculty of Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit (KU) Leuven, Leuven, Belgium,Willibald Gebhardt Research Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany,*Correspondence: Andrea Petróczi
| | - Maarten Cruyff
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Olivier de Hon
- Doping Authority Netherlands, Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands
| | - Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Martial Saugy
- Research and Expertise in anti-Doping Sciences (REDs), Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Kiss A, Lakner Z, Soós S, Petróczi A. Women's Footprint in Anti-Doping Sciences: A Bibliometric Approach to Research Impact. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:866648. [PMID: 35711855 PMCID: PMC9195593 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.866648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bibliometrics, via the exploitation of large-scale publication data, is a facile approach to explore gender-related trends, especially gender equality in academic publishing and authorship. For the first time, this study aims to investigate the gender-related trends in anti-doping sciences to (1) explore the relational structure of gender aspects of authorial, topical, and methodological features, (2) give recognition to women's contribution to anti-doping research, and (3) identify unique “gendered” potentials for advancing anti-doping research. To deliver on these aims, we employed bibliometric tools to publication records in anti-doping. After constructing a database containing academic publications on any aspect of anti-doping with at least one woman among the authors, we applied state-of-the-art methods from bibliometric science mapping and network analysis. The Lotka distribution model showed that the anti-doping research is a closed community with only 70 authors appearing more than once. Male authors being the majority (66.2%), women are under-represented in this field. The most important authorship position in the academic articles is mainly occupied by men, publications with male corresponding authors were in 774 out of 991 anti-doping related papers. The close connection of the top twenty most influential authors, men and women, to the World Anti-Doping Agency in some professional capacity suggest that the Agency have an influence on the anti-doping research beyond directly providing funding. In terms of geographical regions, publications with female authors were dominated anti-doping research in Italy, Romania, and Spain. In research networks to date, women have outperformed male authors in information centrality, which means that women in anti-doping research have had higher level of control over the information flow in the field than their male counterparts. The results of this study confirm the potential of bibliometric approach in the identification of emerging research topics and quantifying gender differentiation in the field of anti-doping. Due to their higher information centrality, women are better positioned for problem-focused multidisciplinary research both within anti-doping community, and with researchers in cognate fields. Bibliometric analyses have proved to be a powerful tool for monitoring and advancing anti-doping research impact via identifying new avenues for multidisciplinary work, better gender representation, and diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kiss
- Library and Information Centre, Department of Scientometrics and Science Policy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), Budapest, Hungary
- *Correspondence: Anna Kiss
| | - Zoltán Lakner
- Department of Agricultural Business and Economics, Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Agriculture, Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria
| | - Sándor Soós
- Library and Information Centre, Department of Scientometrics and Science Policy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Willibald Gebhardt Institute, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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10
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Petróczi A, Boardley ID. The Meaning of “Clean” in Anti-doping Education and Decision Making: Moving Toward Integrity and Conceptual Clarity. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:869704. [PMID: 35647537 PMCID: PMC9136326 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.869704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the World Anti-Doping Agency's International Standard for Education (ISE) coming into effect in 2021, the clean-sport movement is at a pivotal stage. Through this conceptual paper we juxtapose the sector-wide anti-doping education as set out in the ISE on the decision-making process at the individual level. We discuss three critical issues for the clean-sport movement. First, we make the case for doping being a “wicked” problem and outline the possible implications of this for prevention and detection. Second, we consider why we need to address regulative, normative, and cognitive components of clean sport if we are to maximize its legitimacy. Third, we critically expose the fluidity with which clean sport is defined, and the implications of defining clean sport in substance- vs. rule-based terms, which, respectively, lead to theorizing clean sport as “drug-free” vs. “cheating-free” sport. Finally, we consider the role and key components of anti-doping education and how the relevance of certain components may be dependent on the way clean sport is defined. Conceptualizing doping as a sport integrity issue, we move away from the archaic and delimiting view of clean sport as drug-free sport and conclude with recommendations on how to reconcile values-based education, awareness raising, information provision and anti-doping education within the broader scope of integrity, to support informed decision making and personal agency. To connect anti-doping education to individual-level decision making, we recommend a staggered approach in which specific education content is linked to different influences in the decision-making process, to different stages of athlete development, and to different educational goals. Emphasizing and encouraging sensemaking in anti-doping decision making offers a pragmatic approach for anti-doping education. Conceptual clarity and precise mapping of the educational goal, content, and delivery is vital for valid and meaningful evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-doping education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- Department of Applied and Human Sciences, Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
- Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ian D. Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Ian D. Boardley
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Blank C, Gatterer K, Overbye M, Schobersberger W, Streicher B, Petróczi A. GRADE IT—A Literacy-Based Assessment Tool for Generating Research-Based Assessment Data to Evidence the ImpacT of Anti-doping Education via Athletes' Capability to Make the Right Decision. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:842192. [PMID: 35368413 PMCID: PMC8965155 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.842192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The International Standard for Education (ISE) mandates Code Signatories to plan, deliver, and evaluate anti-doping education. Performance-based evaluation of anti-doping education requires alignment between educational goals, content, and defined outcomes. Based on an existentialist teaching and learning philosophy, we aimed to develop and test an anti-doping impact evaluation tool, to assess the impact of anti-doping education on doping awareness, literacy (DAL), perceived trust, and legitimacy. We propose that the impact of anti-doping education is best captured through assessment of situation-specific (social) cognitive mediators of actions that influence athletes' choices in the context of sport-related goals. In phase one, we aimed to develop and test the Generating Research-based Assessment Data to Evidence the ImpacT of anti-doping education (GRADE IT) evaluation tool that comprised a set of social cognitive components: anti-doping knowledge, DAL, perceived trust, and legitimacy of anti-doping (organizations). In phase two we assessed whether anti-doping education impacts knowledge, the three DAL stages (functional, interactive, and critical literacy), perceived trust and legitimacy. Phase one enrolled 986 junior elite athletes, and we showed that all GRADE IT components performed well. After revision of the tool for phase two, we validated the assumption that anti-doping education impacts the likelihood that athletes will make the “right” choice (based on a new set of data from 1,255 junior elite athletes). Comprehensive education was associated with higher scores for all stages of DAL, as well as perceived trust and legitimacy. Even athletes reporting no education had positive scores for all included outcomes, supporting the assumption that most athletes wish to engage in clean sport behaviors and might need anti-doping education not to prevent them from doping, but rather to reinforce their commitment to clean sport. In conclusion, GRADE IT, which is available in 23 languages, is a suitable tool for application to young, emerging athletes to satisfy the ISE requirement for evaluating anti-doping education programs. Researchers and practitioners alike are advised to collect additional data to further validate the tool for adult athletes, and to apply it longitudinally to identify if changes in doping prevention policies have a delayed effect on DAL, perceived trust, and legitimacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Blank
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
- *Correspondence: Cornelia Blank
| | - Katharina Gatterer
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Marie Overbye
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Schobersberger
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, UMIT - Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
- Tirol Kliniken GmbH, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Streicher
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
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12
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Shelley J, Thrower SN, Petróczi A. Racing Clean in a Tainted World: A Qualitative Exploration of the Experiences and Views of Clean British Elite Distance Runners on Doping and Anti-Doping. Front Psychol 2021; 12:673087. [PMID: 34305727 PMCID: PMC8296639 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.673087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Doping has been a prominent issue for the sport of athletics in recent years. The endurance disciplines, which currently account for 56% of the global anti-doping rule violations in athletics, appear to be particularly high risk for doping. Objective: Using this high-risk, high-pressure context, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the human impact of doping and anti-doping on "clean" athletes. The secondary aim of the study was to better understand the reasons for, and barriers to, competing "clean" among this group of athletes. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 elite distance runners from the UK to explore: (1) the reasons and motivations for competing clean. (2) Perceptions of the anti-doping system, and experiences of being part of that system. (3) Views on the prevalence and causes of doping and the impact of doping on the lives of clean athletes. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Results: Four major themes were identified: (1) The participants in this study have not been tempted to use prohibited substances or methods; they compete in their sport for the personal satisfaction of seeing how good they can be, rather than in pursuit of winning at all costs. (2) Anti-doping does not currently prevent doping effectively and is not implemented evenly across the globe. (3) Doping was perceived as a major issue and was felt to be borne out of certain sporting cultures in which doping is enabled. (4) Doping has impacted the careers of clean athletes in irreversible ways and presents a continuing challenge to the psychological preparation for competition. Conclusions: Clean athletes suffer negative consequences from both doping and anti-doping. ADOs must collaborate across borders to ensure a more even implementation of anti-doping activities, to facilitate a more level playing field on the global stage. ADOs must also acknowledge the existence of a large group of athletes who would never consider deliberately doping and make anti-doping work for these athletes too.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake Shelley
- School of Life Sciences, Engineering and Computing, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sam N. Thrower
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Roehampton, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Engineering and Computing, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
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13
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Mitrofanova E, Pummell EKL, Mulrooney HM, Petróczi A. Using Behavioural Reasoning Theory to Explore Reasons for Dietary Restriction: A Qualitative Study of Orthorexic Behavioural Tendencies in the UK. Front Psychol 2021; 12:685545. [PMID: 34305743 PMCID: PMC8295483 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthorexia Nervosa (ON) has gained increased attention in academia since 1997. However, like other “Exia” conditions, there is debate around its inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This study aimed to examine the experiences of those following a diet indicative of ON in the United Kingdom. This information is essential to the development of diagnostic criteria and classification of ON. Behavioural Reasoning Theory was used to explore reasons contributing to the development of ON. Ten individuals (two males and eight females), aged 23–35 years, took part in semi-structured interviews. Inductive thematic analysis was used to analyse the results. Four themes emerged from the data—journey, social, rules/control, and ethical considerations which highlighted contributing factors to the development of ON behaviours, the impact of these behaviours on individuals' social lives, and a strive for control. These findings are the first to suggest that ON involves a more complex set of behaviours than current definitions and proposed diagnostic criteria suggest and highlight the need to consider a variety of reasons for restricted diet when developing diagnostic criteria, screening tools, and classification in the DSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Mitrofanova
- Faculty of Science Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth K L Pummell
- Faculty of Science Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Hilda M Mulrooney
- Faculty of Science Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
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14
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Sagoe D, Cruyff M, Spendiff O, Chegeni R, de Hon O, Saugy M, van der Heijden PGM, Petróczi A. Functionality of the Crosswise Model for Assessing Sensitive or Transgressive Behavior: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Psychol 2021; 12:655592. [PMID: 34248750 PMCID: PMC8260852 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tools for reliable assessment of socially sensitive or transgressive behavior warrant constant development. Among them, the Crosswise Model (CM) has gained considerable attention. We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed empirical applications of CM and addressed a gap for quality assessment of indirect estimation models. Guided by the PRISMA protocol, we identified 45 empirical studies from electronic database and reference searches. Thirty of these were comparative validation studies (CVS) comparing CM and direct question (DQ) estimates. Six prevalence studies exclusively used CM. One was a qualitative study. Behavior investigated were substance use and misuse (k = 13), academic misconduct (k = 8), and corruption, tax evasion, and theft (k = 7) among others. Majority of studies (k = 39) applied the "more is better" hypothesis. Thirty-five studies relied on birthday distribution and 22 of these used P = 0.25 for the non-sensitive item. Overall, 11 studies were assessed as high-, 31 as moderate-, and two as low quality (excluding the qualitative study). The effect of non-compliance was assessed in eight studies. From mixed CVS results, the meta-analysis indicates that CM outperforms DQ on the "more is better" validation criterion, and increasingly so with higher behavior sensitivity. However, little difference was observed between DQ and CM estimates for items with DQ prevalence estimate around 50%. Based on empirical evidence available to date, our study provides support for the superiority of CM to DQ in assessing sensitive/transgressive behavior. Despite some limitations, CM is a valuable and promising tool for population level investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Sagoe
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maarten Cruyff
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Owen Spendiff
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
| | - Razieh Chegeni
- Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Olivier de Hon
- Doping Authority Netherlands, Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands
| | - Martial Saugy
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter G M van der Heijden
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.,Statistical Science Southampton Research Institute, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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15
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Woolway T, Elbe AM, Barkoukis V, Bingham K, Bochaver K, Bondarev D, Hudson A, Kronenberg L, Lazuras L, Mallia L, Ntovolis Y, Zelli A, Petróczi A. One Does Not Fit All: European Study Shows Significant Differences in Value-Priorities in Clean Sport. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:662542. [PMID: 34109312 PMCID: PMC8181163 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.662542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Doping violates the Spirit of Sport and is thought to contradict the values which underpin this spirit. Values-based education (VBE) has been cited as a key element for creating a clean sport culture across age groups. Culturally relevant VBE requires understanding of the values that motivate athletes from different countries to practice their sport and uphold clean sport values. WADA's new International Standards for Education makes this study both needed and timely. Overall, 1,225 athletes from Germany, Greece, Italy, Russia, and the UK responded to measures assessing their general values, Spirit of Sport values, and their perceived importance of “clean sport”. MaxDiff analysis identified the most important values to participants based on their respective country of residence. Correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between importance of clean sport and Spirit of Sport values. There were significant differences between participant nationality and their perceived importance of clean sport [F(4, 1,204) = 797.060, p < 0.000], the most important general values (p < 0.05), and Spirit of Sport values (p < 0.05). Moderate positive correlations were observed between the perceived importance of clean sport and honesty and ethics (r = 0.538, p < 0.005) and respecting the rules of sport (r = 0.507, p < 0.005). When designing the values-based component of anti-doping education programs, athletes' different value-priorities across countries should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Woolway
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anne-Marie Elbe
- Institute for Sport Psychology and Sport Pedagogy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kevin Bingham
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantin Bochaver
- Laboratory of Sport Psychology, Moscow Institute of Psychoanalysis, Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitriy Bondarev
- Institute of Living Systems, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russia
| | - Andy Hudson
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lara Kronenberg
- Institute for Sport Psychology and Sport Pedagogy, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Lambros Lazuras
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Mallia
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Science, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Yannis Ntovolis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Science, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Movement Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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16
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Boardley ID, Chandler M, Backhouse SH, Petróczi A. Co-creating a social science research agenda for clean sport: An international Delphi study. Int J Drug Policy 2021; 92:103161. [PMID: 33589380 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Doping in sport is a significant issue. To date, research informing doping prevention has lacked a framework guiding research priorities. To ensure research is coordinated, sustainable and focused on end-user priorities, this study co-created the first research agenda for doping prevention. METHODS The Delphi method was used to develop this agenda. Based upon two substantive reviews of the doping literature and 12 focus groups across five countries, a questionnaire was developed assessing the importance of 15 research topics and identifying research questions. Eighty-two anti-doping stakeholders with relevant expertise were invited to be panel members. In Round 1, an expert panel (n = 57; 70% response rate) completed this questionnaire. In Round 2, panel members (n = 33; 58% response rate) ranked for relative importance the eight topic areas rated highest in Round 1, before doing the same for research questions within each topic. Based on these rankings, a draft agenda was created. In Round 3, panel members (n = 26; 79% response rate) rated the degree to which they accepted this agenda, the feasibility of its delivery and identified possible barriers and facilitators to implementation. RESULTS The results of Round 1 and Round 2 were used to create a draft agenda consisting of 18 research questions stratified across eight topic areas. This agenda was either fully (n = 16) or mostly (n = 9) accepted by the panel in Round 3 (96.2%). Research topics included the effectiveness of interventions/education programmes, environmental influences, long-term development of protective and risk factors in athletes and their entourage, athletes' experiences of anti-doping procedures and athletes' place in the anti-doping system. CONCLUSIONS A rigorous exercise created an agenda for doping prevention research. Adoption and application of this agenda should lead to better coordination, more efficient use of funding, enhanced uptake of research findings and more effective doping prevention education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian D Boardley
- University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
| | - Martin Chandler
- University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Susan H Backhouse
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Headingley, Leeds, LS16 5LF, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom
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17
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Petróczi A, Backhouse SH, Boardley ID, Saugy M, Pitsiladis Y, Viret M, Ioannidis G, Ohl F, Loland S, McNamee M. 'Clean athlete status' cannot be certified: Calling for caution, evidence and transparency in 'alternative' anti-doping systems. Int J Drug Policy 2020; 93:103030. [PMID: 33250439 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Athletes, sponsors and sport organisations all have a vested interest in upholding the values of clean sport. Despite the considerable and concerted efforts of the global anti-doping system over two decades, the present system is imperfect. Capitalising upon consequent frustrations of athletes, event organisers and sponsors, alternative anti-doping systems have emerged outside the global regulatory framework. The operating principles of these systems raise several concerns, notably including accountability, legitimacy and fairness to athletes. In this paper, we scrutinise the Clean Protocol™, which is the most comprehensive alternative system, for its shortcomings through detailed analysis of its alleged logical and scientific merits. Specifically, we draw the attention of the anti-doping community - including researchers and practitioners - to the potential pitfalls of using assessment tools beyond the scope for which they have been validated, and implementing new approaches without validation. Further, we argue that whilst protecting clean sport is critically important to all stakeholders, protocols that put athletes in disadvantageous positions and/or pose risks to their professional and personal lives lack legitimacy. We criticise the use of anti-doping data and scientific research out of context, and highlight unintended harms that are likely to arise from the widespread implementation of such protocols in parallel with - or in place of - the existing global anti-doping framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | - Susan H Backhouse
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Ian D Boardley
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Martial Saugy
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Yannis Pitsiladis
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, United Kingdom
| | - Marjolaine Viret
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gregory Ioannidis
- Department of Law & Criminology, Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Ohl
- Institute of Sports Science, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sigmund Loland
- Department of Sport and Social Sciences, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Norway
| | - Mike McNamee
- Department of Movement Sciences, KU Leuven, Belgium; School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Swansea University, United Kingdom
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18
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Mitrofanova E, Mulrooney H, Petróczi A. Assessing psychological and nutritional impact of suspected orthorexia nervosa: a cross-sectional pilot study. J Hum Nutr Diet 2020; 34:42-53. [PMID: 33216395 DOI: 10.1111/jhn.12797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To date, research on the dietary patterns of individuals with potential orthorexic symptoms is lacking. This cross-sectional pilot study aimed to explore the feasibility of assessing dietary patterns with psychological traits and states of individuals with possible orthorexic tendencies. METHODS Dietary intakes of 10 individuals (two males and eight females) were assessed using 24-h recall. Mean age of participants was 28.3 years; mean body mass index was 21.2 kg m-2 . Nutrient intakes were compared with current dietary guidelines and the Eatwell Guide (Public Health England, 2016). Participants completed the ORTO-15, the Eating Attitude Test (EAT-26), the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised edition (OCI-R), Paulhus's Spheres of Control (SoC), the Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). RESULTS High levels of disparity across participants' psychometric scores and 24-h recall results were observed. There was no single pattern of self-imposed dietary restrictions among participants. Described dietary practices failed to meet the guidelines for several nutrients. CONCLUSIONS The results of this pilot study suggest that an extensive investigation of the diets of individuals with possible orthorexic tendencies in a large-scale study would contribute to the understanding of this condition. In addition, the use of multiple psychometric instruments is recommended for diagnosing orthorexic nervosa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - H Mulrooney
- Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, UK
| | - A Petróczi
- Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, UK
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19
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Woolway T, Lazuras L, Barkoukis V, Petróczi A. "Doing What Is Right and Doing It Right": A Mapping Review of Athletes' Perception of Anti-Doping Legitimacy. Int J Drug Policy 2020; 84:102865. [PMID: 32738700 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999 and the first implementation of the Anti-Doping Code in 2004 established institutional and legal level legitimacy for the anti-doping movement. Subsequently, a distinct line of research examining athletes' perceptions of anti-doping has emerged. This study aims to review the literature on legitimacy via athletes' perceptions of the underpinning values, fairness and effectiveness of anti-doping rules and procedures. METHODS A systematic mapping review with computerised literature search of seven databases (EBSCOHost, PubMed, Ingenta, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscuss and Google Scholar) was used, followed by hand-search of reference lists and relevant journals. Based on Tyler's (2006) psychological components of legitimacy (proper, just, and appropriate), a bespoke conceptual map and analytical framework was developed and employed for retrospective categorisation. RESULTS Thirty-nine studies representing 15,434 participants met the inclusion criteria. About half of the eligible studies discussed legitimacy components without identifying them as such. Identification of studies for legitimacy concepts faced considerable ambiguity in measures and interpretation, particularly in distinguishing between elements of being 'just' and 'appropriate'. Single focus on one aspect was rare but only 11 of the 39 studies included all three elements of perceived legitimacy. Overall, athletes agreed that anti-doping is 'doing the right thing' to protect clean sport but their views differed on whether the existing anti-doping system is effective and implemented fairly (i.e., 'doing anti-doping in a right way'). Owing to the ad hoc measurements and diverse methodology, quantitative meta-analysis was not feasible. CONCLUSION Legitimacy is an important concept in anti-doping. Attention to globally equal and fair implementation of testing and sanctioning is warranted. Legitimacy perceptions can be improved by better communication from anti-doping organisations to highlight progress with detection, greater transparency and explicit support for athletes who were affected by doping. Future research requires standardised conceptual framework and measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Woolway
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, UK
| | - Lambros Lazuras
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education & Sport Sciences, Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, UK.
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20
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Karras SN, Koufakis T, Adamidou L, Antonopoulou V, Karalazou P, Thisiadou K, Mitrofanova E, Mulrooney H, Petróczi A, Zebekakis P, Makedou K, Kotsa K. Effects of orthodox religious fasting versus combined energy and time restricted eating on body weight, lipid concentrations and glycaemic profile. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2020; 72:82-92. [PMID: 32362210 DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2020.1760218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
For seven weeks, 37 overweight adults followed a hypocaloric diet based on Orthodox Fasting (OF). A hypocaloric, time restricted eating (TRE) plan (eating between 08:00 to 16:00 h, water fasting from 16:00 to 08:00 h) was followed by 23 Body Mass Index (BMI)-matched participants. Anthropometric, glycaemic and inflammation markers and serum lipids were assessed before and after the diets. Both OF and TRE groups demonstrated reductions in BMI (28.54 ± 5.45 vs 27.20 ± 5.10 kg/m2, p < 0.001 and 26.40 ± 4.11 vs 25.81 ± 3.78 kg/m2 p = 0.001, respectively). Following the intervention, the OF group presented lower concentrations of total and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, compared with the pre-fasting values (178.40 ± 34.14 vs 197.17 ± 34.30 mg/dl, p < 0.001 and 105.89 ± 28.08 vs 122.37 ± 29.70 mg/dl, p < 0.001, respectively). Neither group manifested significant differences in glycaemic and inflammatory parameters. Our findings suggest that OF has superior lipid lowering effects than the TRE pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spyridon N Karras
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Theocharis Koufakis
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Lilian Adamidou
- Department of Dietetics and Nutrition, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Antonopoulou
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Paraskevi Karalazou
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Thisiadou
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Elina Mitrofanova
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Hilda Mulrooney
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Pantelis Zebekakis
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kali Makedou
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kalliopi Kotsa
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Department of Internal Medicine, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Pitsiladis YP, Abatzis-Papadopoulos M, Ali N, Aggeloudis S, Atkinson C, Constandache B, Ganus Y, Geladas N, Giakoumakis SI, Güner R, Howman D, Lima GHO, Khristenko E, Koskolou M, Klissouras V, Ladikas M, Loland S, McNamee MJ, Pardos BM, Natsis K, Nicholson P, Betancurt JO, Angeloudis K, Pappas E, Peteraitis M, Petróczi A, Papadopoulou T, Pigozzi F, Saugy M, Simon P, Singleton P, Sizikova E, Sottas PE, Tanaka M, Wang G, Yang H. The Olympia Declaration. Curr Sports Med Rep 2019; 18:448-451. [PMID: 31834176 DOI: 10.1249/jsr.0000000000000660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yannis P Pitsiladis
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM.,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico," Rome, ITALY.,International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), Lausanne, SWITZERLAND
| | | | - Nemer Ali
- University of Misr for Science and Technology, Cairo, EGYPT.,Hospital of Salem, Heidelberg, GERMANY
| | | | | | | | - Yuri Ganus
- Russian Anti-Doping Agency (RUSADA), Moscow, RUSSIA
| | - Nikos Geladas
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GREECE
| | | | - Rüştü Güner
- Department of Sports Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, TURKEY
| | | | - Giscard Humberto Oliveira Lima
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM.,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico," Rome, ITALY
| | | | - Maria Koskolou
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GREECE
| | - Vassilis Klissouras
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, GREECE.,Departments of Physiology and Physical Education, McGill University, Montreal, CANADA
| | - Miltos Ladikas
- Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, GERMANY
| | - Sigmund Loland
- Department of Cultural and Social Studies, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, NORWAY
| | - Michael J McNamee
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UNITED KINGDOM.,Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, BELGIUM
| | - Borja Muñiz Pardos
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, University of Zaragoza (Spain)
| | | | | | - Jonathan Ospina Betancurt
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM.,Faculty of Sport Science, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, SPAIN
| | | | | | | | - Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Theodora Papadopoulou
- Defence Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Stanford Hall, Loughborough, UNITED KINGDOM.,British Association Sport and Exercise Medicine, Doncaster, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Fabio Pigozzi
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico," Rome, ITALY.,International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), Lausanne, SWITZERLAND
| | - Martial Saugy
- Research and Expertise Centre in Anti-Doping Sciences of the University of Lausanne, Lausanne, SWITZERLAND
| | - Perikles Simon
- Department of Sports Medicine, Disease Prevention and Rehabilitation, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, GERMANY
| | | | | | | | - Masashi Tanaka
- Department for Health and Longevity Research, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, JAPAN.,Department of Neurology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, JAPAN.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, IMS Miyoshi General Hospital, Miyoshi, Saitama, JAPAN
| | - Guan Wang
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM
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Lazuras L, Barkoukis V, Loukovitis A, Brand R, Hudson A, Mallia L, Michaelides M, Muzi M, Petróczi A, Zelli A. Corrigendum: "I Want It All, and I Want It Now": Lifetime Prevalence and Reasons for Using and Abstaining from Controlled Performance and Appearance Enhancing Substances (PAES) among Young Exercisers and Amateur Athletes in Five European Countries. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1162. [PMID: 30083116 PMCID: PMC6069581 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00717.].
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Affiliation(s)
- Lambros Lazuras
- Department of Psychology, Sociology and Politics, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Andreas Loukovitis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ralf Brand
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Andy Hudson
- School of Education, Faculty of Health, Social Care and Education, Kingston University and St George's University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Mallia
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | | | - Milena Muzi
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Engineering and Computing, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
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Bleasdale EE, Thrower SN, Petróczi A. Would You Use It With a Seal of Approval? Important Attributes of 2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) as a Hypothetical Pharmaceutical Product. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:124. [PMID: 29731723 PMCID: PMC5919945 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 2,4-Dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP) is an effective but highly dangerous fat burner, not licensed for human consumption. Death cases reported for 2,4-DNP overdose, particularly among young adults, have raised concerns about the ineffective regulatory control, lack of education and risks associated with impurity, and the unknown concentration of 2,4-DNP purchased on the Internet. METHODS Using a sequential mixed method design and based on a hypothetical scenario as if 2,4-DNP was a licensed pharmaceutical drug, first we conducted a qualitative study to explore what product attributes people consider when buying a weight-loss aid. Focus group interviews with six females and three males (mean age = 21.6 ± 1.8 years) were audiorecorded, transcribed verbatim, and subjected to thematic analysis. Sixteen attributes were identified for the Best-Worst Scale (BWS) in the quantitative survey with 106 participants (64% female, mean age = 27.1 ± 11.9 years), focusing on 2,4-DNP. Demographics, weight satisfaction, and risk for eating disorder data were collected. RESULTS In contrast to experienced users such as bodybuilders, our study participants approached 2,4-DNP cautiously. Attributes of 2,4-DNP as a hypothetical weight-loss drug comprised a range of desirable and avoidable features. Of the 16 selected attributes, BWS suggested that long-term side effects were the most and branding was the least important attribute. Effectiveness and short-term side effects were also essential. Those in the >25 year group showed least concerns for legality. Neutral BWS scores for cost, treatment, degree of lifestyle changes required, and specificity required for the hypothetical weight-loss drug to be effective were likely caused by disagreement about their importance among the participants, not indifference. CONCLUSION With advances in research, 2,4-DNP as a pharmaceutical drug in the future for treating neurodegenerative diseases and potentially for weight loss is not inconceivable. Caution is warranted for interpreting the BWS scores. Owing to the difference in what data represent at individual vs. population levels, with pooled data, the method correctly identifies attributes by which most people are satisfied but misrepresents attributes that are individually very important but not universally agreed. Whilst this may be an advantage in marketing applications, it limits the utility of BWS as a research tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma E. Bleasdale
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Sam N. Thrower
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
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24
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Ulrich R, Pope HG, Cléret L, Petróczi A, Nepusz T, Schaffer J, Kanayama G, Comstock RD, Simon P. Doping in Two Elite Athletics Competitions Assessed by Randomized-Response Surveys. Sports Med 2017; 48:211-219. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0765-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Zachár G, Deshmukh NIK, Petróczi A, Székely AD, Shah I, Barker J, Naughton DP. Inhibitory Effects of Diclofenac on Steroid Glucuronidation In Vivo Do Not Affect Hair-Based Doping Tests for Stanozolol. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22060976. [PMID: 28604639 PMCID: PMC6152663 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22060976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro studies show that diclofenac inhibits enzymatic steroid glucuronidation. This study was designed to investigate the influence of diclofenac on the excretion of stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol via analyses in hair, blood and urine in vivo in a rat study. Brown Norway rats were administered with stanozolol (weeks 1–3) and diclofenac (weeks 1–6). Weekly assessment of steroid levels in hair was complemented with spot urine and serum tests. Levels of both stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol steadily increased in hair during stanozolol treatment and decreased post-treatment, but remained readily detectable for 6 weeks. In contrast, compared to control rats, diclofenac significantly reduced urinary excretion of 3′-hydroxystanozolol which was undetectable in most samples. This is the first report of diclofenac altering steroid metabolism in vivo, detrimentally affecting detection in urine, but not in hair, which holds considerable advantages over urinalysis for anti-doping tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Zachár
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Semmelweis University, Tűzoltó u. 58, Budapest 1094, Hungary.
| | - Naved I K Deshmukh
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, London KT1 2EE, UK.
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, London KT1 2EE, UK.
| | - Andrea D Székely
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Semmelweis University, Tűzoltó u. 58, Budapest 1094, Hungary.
| | - Iltaf Shah
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 009713, UAE.
| | - James Barker
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, London KT1 2EE, UK.
| | - Declan P Naughton
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, London KT1 2EE, UK.
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26
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Petróczi A, Norman P, Brueckner S. Can We Better Integrate the Role of Anti-Doping in Sports and Society? A Psychological Approach to Contemporary Value-Based Prevention. Med Sport Sci 2017; 62:160-176. [PMID: 28571017 DOI: 10.1159/000460726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In sport, a wide array of substances with established or putative performance-enhancing properties is used. Most substances are fully acceptable, whilst a defined set, revised annually, is prohibited; thus, using any of these prohibited substances is declared as cheating. In the increasingly tolerant culture of pharmacological and technical human enhancements, the traditional normative approach to anti-doping, which involves telling athletes what they cannot do to improve their athletic ability and performance, diverges from the otherwise positive values attached to human improvement and enhancement in society. Today, doping is the epitome of conflicting normative expectations about the goal (performance enhancement) and the means by which the goal is achieved (use of drugs). Owing to this moral-functional duality, addressing motivations for doping avoidance at the community level is necessary, but not sufficient, for effective doping prevention. Relevant and meaningful anti-doping must also recognise and respect the values of those affected, and consolidate them with the values underpinning structural, community level anti-doping. Effective anti-doping efforts are pragmatic, positive, preventive, and proactive. They acknowledge the progressive nature of how a "performance mindset" forms in parallel with the career transition to elite level, encompasses all levels and abilities, and directly addresses the reasons behind doping use with tangible solutions. For genuine integration into sport and society, anti-doping should consistently engage athletes and other stakeholders in developing positive preventive strategies to ensure that anti-doping education not only focuses on the intrinsic values associated with the spirit of sport but also recognises the values attached to performance enhancement, addresses the pressures athletes are under, and meets their needs for practical solutions to avoid doping. Organisations involved in anti- doping should avoid the image of "controlling" but, instead, work in partnerships with all stakeholders to involve and ensure integration of the targeted individuals in global community-based preventive interventions.
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Lazuras L, Barkoukis V, Loukovitis A, Brand R, Hudson A, Mallia L, Michaelides M, Muzi M, Petróczi A, Zelli A. "I Want It All, and I Want It Now": Lifetime Prevalence and Reasons for Using and Abstaining from Controlled Performance and Appearance Enhancing Substances (PAES) among Young Exercisers and Amateur Athletes in Five European Countries. Front Psychol 2017; 8:717. [PMID: 28588518 PMCID: PMC5438994 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Doping use in recreational sports is an emerging issue that has received limited attention so far in the psychological literature. The present study assessed the lifetime prevalence of controlled performance and appearance enhancing substances (PAES), and used behavioral reasoning theory to identify the reasons for using and for avoiding using controlled PAES in young exercisers across five European countries, in the context of the “SAFE YOU” Project. Participants were 800 young amateur athletes and exercisers (M = 21.56; SD = 2.69) from Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Italy, and UK who completed an anonymous questionnaire that included measures of self-reported use of controlled PAES, as well as reasons for using and not using controlled PAES. The results of the descriptive analyses demonstrated that almost one out five exercisers in the sample had a previous experience with controlled PAES. Higher prevalence rates were found in Greece and Cyprus and lower in Italy. The most frequently reported reasons for using controlled PAES included achieving the desired results faster; pushing the self to the (physical) limits; and recovering faster after exercise/training. Furthermore, the most frequently reported reasons for not using controlled PAES involved worry about any possible adverse health effects; not feeling the need for using them; and wanting to see what can be achieved naturally without using any controlled PAES. The findings of the present study indicate that the use of controlled PAES is fast becoming a crisis in amateur sports and exercise settings and highlight the need for preventive action and concerted anti-doping education efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lambros Lazuras
- Department of Psychology, Sociology and Politics, Sheffield Hallam UniversitySheffield, UK
| | - Vassilis Barkoukis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Aristotle University of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece
| | - Andreas Loukovitis
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Aristotle University of ThessalonikiThessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ralf Brand
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of PotsdamPotsdam, Germany
| | - Andy Hudson
- School of Education, Faculty of Health, Social Care and Education, Kingston University and St George's University of LondonLondon, UK
| | - Luca Mallia
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico"Rome, Italy
| | | | - Milena Muzi
- Department of Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of PotsdamPotsdam, Germany
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Engineering and Computing, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston UniversityLondon, UK
| | - Arnaldo Zelli
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico"Rome, Italy
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Ehirim EM, Naughton DP, Petróczi A. No Laughing Matter: Presence, Consumption Trends, Drug Awareness, and Perceptions of "Hippy Crack" (Nitrous Oxide) among Young Adults in England. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:312. [PMID: 29403400 PMCID: PMC5786547 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In clinical settings, nitrous oxide gas is a safe anesthetic used during childbirth, in dentistry, and to relieve anxiety in emergencies. Colloquially known as "hippy crack"' or "laughing gas," it is increasingly taken recreationally for its euphoric and relaxing effects and hallucinogenic properties. Using a self-reported survey, we gathered quantitative and qualitative information on users and non-users of hippy crack among a young population regarding: consumption patterns, knowledge, risk awareness and intentions toward future abuse. Quantitative responses from a total of 140 participants were analyzed for frequencies and relationships, whereas qualitative data were evaluated via identifying the reoccurring themes. Overall, 77.1% (n = 108) had heard of hippy crack and 27.9% (n = 39) admitted to past-year use. Prior users mostly indicated intended future use, had an average low number of past-year uses but some with > 20 occasions, had a varied number of inhalations per occasion (often 1-10) with an effect lasting up to 5 min, and a majority preferred social rather than lone use. For non-users, 79.2% said they would take hippy crack with the vast majority (94%) preferring a social setting. The results show a concerning gap between available evidence and awareness of side effects. Despite serious reported side effects, including psychosis and myeloneuropathy-especially on the young developing brain-only a minority (29.3%) was aware of any side effects. In contrast, in a hypothetical scenario depicting a first social encounter with hippy crack, the qualitative responses were in contrast to qualitative outcomes revealing that participants would try (n = 30)/not try (n = 25) it, would feel under pressure to try it (n = 6) with only 11 opting to exit the situation. In summary, this first report of trends and perceptions of the use of hippy crack among young adults in the England highlights a lack of concern with side effects, coupled to a willingness to partake. Because typical users are young with risks to the still developing brain, education about the nitrous oxide abuse is warranted to prevent impaired brain development. Further studies to investigate the possible effects of nitrous oxide on the developing brain in young adults would advance meaningful prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther M Ehirim
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Declan P Naughton
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The non-medical use of prescription medication for the pursuit of increasing cognitive and intellectual capacities (defined neuroenhancement) has received growing attention from the scientific community and policymakers alike. To date, limited qualitative data exist exploring the nature of the phenomenon, especially as a potentially emerging trend among university students in England. Existing American literature suggests that students believe that neuroenhancement helps the individual to maximize his/her time, consenting a suitable balance between work and leisure. Students' motivation to experiment with neuroenhancement appears to be more in line with a need to regulate emotions surrounding study/work settings than to actually improve cognitive abilities beyond normal levels. This study aimed to qualitatively explore representations, motivations, beliefs, and consumption styles of a cohort of university student users residing in England. Through snowball sampling, 13 informants were contacted and interviewed regarding their experience with neuroenhancers. Narrations were analyzed and interpreted using qualitative analysis software and Grounded Theory methodology. Participants belonged to a broad variety of university courses and were predominantly habitual consumers of modafinil. Neuroenhancers were acquired either through friends or via the Internet. Motivations regarded the need to "catch up" and be on par with high achieving students. The entire cohort had previously experimented with other psychotropic substances. Synthetic compounds in particular were believed to be "gateway" drugs to using neuroenhancers. Experimentation with neuroenhancement can be seen as a self-governing strategy aimed at achieving continued focused productivity. Participants acknowledged sustainable benefits in neuroenhancement as it optimized work performance. The majority of the cohort also contemplated the possibility of using these drugs in the future once they entered the workforce. Neuroenhancing drug users expressed "situated morality," differentiating between using these substances for assessments (exams) or during revisions, finding only the former as an immoral conduct. In the present scenario, it appears that neuroenhancement is practiced by small numbers of students. Nonetheless, the instrumental views of psychotropic substances held by many young adults and the globalization of these practices make the normalization of neuroenhancement a plausible possibility of the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth J Vargo
- Pharmacy and Chemistry, School of Life Sciences, Kingston University Surrey, UK
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Pharmacy and Chemistry, School of Life Sciences, Kingston University Surrey, UK
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Hoxha B, Petróczi A. Playing with fire? Factors influencing risk willingness with the unlicensed fat burner drug 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) in young adults. Public Health 2015; 129:1519-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2015.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2014] [Revised: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Petróczi A, Ocampo JAV, Shah I, Jenkinson C, New R, James RA, Taylor G, Naughton DP. Russian roulette with unlicensed fat-burner drug 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP): evidence from a multidisciplinary study of the internet, bodybuilding supplements and DNP users. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2015; 10:39. [PMID: 26466580 PMCID: PMC4607104 DOI: 10.1186/s13011-015-0034-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Background 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) poses serious health-risks to humans. The aims of this three-stage multidisciplinary project were, for the first time, to assess the risks to the general public from fraudulent sale of or adulteration/contamination with DNP; and to investigate motives, reasons and risk-management among DNP-user bodybuilders and avid exercisers. Methods Using multiple search-engines and guidance for Internet research, online retailers and bodybuilding forums/blogs were systematically explored for availability of DNP, advice offered on DNP use and user profiles. Ninety-eight pre-workout and weight-loss supplements were purchased and analysed for DNP using liquid-chromatography-mass-spectrometry. Psychosocial variables were captured in an international sample of 35 DNP users (26.06 ± 6.10 years, 94.3 % male) with an anonymous, semi-qualitative self-reported survey. Results Although an industrial chemical, evidence from the Internet showed that DNP is sold ‘as is’, in capsules or tablets to suit human consumption, and is used ‘uncut’. Analytical results confirmed that DNP is not on the supplement market disguised under fictitious supplement names, but infrequently was present as contaminant in some supplements (14/98) at low concentration (<100mcg/kg). Users make conscious and ‘informed’ decisions about DNP; are well-prepared for the side-effects and show nonchalant attitude toward self-experimentation with DNP. Steps are often taken to ensure that DNP is genuine. Personal experience with performance- and appearance enhancing substances appears to be a gateway to DNP. Advice on DNP and experiences are shared online. The significant discrepancy between the normative perception and the actual visibility suggests that DNP use is-contrary to the Internet accounts-a highly concealed and lonesome activity in real life. Positive experiences with the expected weight-loss prevail over the negative experiences from side effects (all but two users considered using DNP again) and help with using DNP safely is considered preferable over scare-tactics. Conclusion Legislation banning DNP sale for human consumption protects the general public but DNP is sold ‘as is’ and used ‘uncut’ by determined users who are not dissuaded from experimenting with DNP based on health threats. Further research with stakeholders’ active participation is imperative for targeted, proactive public health policies and harm-reduction measures for DNP, and other illicit supplements. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13011-015-0034-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | - Jorge A Vela Ocampo
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | - Iltaf Shah
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | | | - Rachael New
- Hampshire County Council-Scientific Services, Hampshire, UK.
| | - Ricky A James
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
| | - Glenn Taylor
- Hampshire County Council-Scientific Services, Hampshire, UK.
| | - Declan P Naughton
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University London, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
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Petróczi A, Backhouse SH, Barkoukis V, Brand R, Elbe AM, Lazuras L, Lucidi F. A matter of mind-set in the interpretation of forensic application. Int J Drug Policy 2015; 26:1142-3. [PMID: 26297563 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- Kingston University London, United Kingdom; University of Sheffield, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
To enable preventive measures to be designed, it is important to identify modifiable distal and proximal factors underlying doping behavior. This study investigated aspects of the prototype willingness model in relation to doping. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 729 competitive athletes. Following ethical approval, athletes (mean age = 28.8 ± 10.1 years; 63% male) completed an online questionnaire, which assessed doping-related attitudes, norms, prototype perceptions, outcome expectancies, and behavioral willingness. Using hierarchical multiple regression analysis, 54.4% of the total variance in willingness to dope was explained. Specifically, past doping, attitudes, and favorability of performance enhancing substance user prototypes were the strongest unique predictors of willingness to dope. Athletes appeared most willing to dope if they were to suffer an injury, a dip in performance, or think others are doping and getting away with it. National-level athletes displayed significantly greater willingness to dope (Kruskal-Wallis γ2 = 35.9, P < 0.001) and perceived themselves as significantly more similar to a doper (Kruskal-Wallis γ2 = 13.4, P = 0.004) than athletes competing at any other level. The findings highlight the importance of extending anti-doping provision beyond elite-level sport and the need to target athletes' doping-related perceptions.
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Petróczi A, Backhouse SH, Barkoukis V, Brand R, Elbe AM, Lazuras L, Lucidi F. A call for policy guidance on psychometric testing in doping control in sport. Int J Drug Policy 2015; 26:1130-9. [PMID: 26094122 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
One of the fundamental challenges in anti-doping is identifying athletes who use, or are at risk of using, prohibited performance enhancing substances. The growing trend to employ a forensic approach to doping control aims to integrate information from social sciences (e.g., psychology of doping) into organised intelligence to protect clean sport. Beyond the foreseeable consequences of a positive identification as a doping user, this task is further complicated by the discrepancy between what constitutes a doping offence in the World Anti-Doping Code and operationalized in doping research. Whilst psychology plays an important role in developing our understanding of doping behaviour in order to inform intervention and prevention, its contribution to the array of doping diagnostic tools is still in its infancy. In both research and forensic settings, we must acknowledge that (1) socially desirable responding confounds self-reported psychometric test results and (2) that the cognitive complexity surrounding test performance means that the response-time based measures and the lie detector tests for revealing concealed life-events (e.g., doping use) are prone to produce false or non-interpretable outcomes in field settings. Differences in social-cognitive characteristics of doping behaviour that are tested at group level (doping users vs. non-users) cannot be extrapolated to individuals; nor these psychometric measures used for individual diagnostics. In this paper, we present a position statement calling for policy guidance on appropriate use of psychometric assessments in the pursuit of clean sport. We argue that, to date, both self-reported and response-time based psychometric tests for doping have been designed, tested and validated to explore how athletes feel and think about doping in order to develop a better understanding of doping behaviour, not to establish evidence for doping. A false 'positive' psychological profile for doping affects not only the individual 'clean' athlete but also their entourage, their organisation and sport itself. The proposed policy guidance aims to protect the global athletic community against social, ethical and legal consequences from potential misuse of psychological tests, including erroneous or incompetent applications as forensic diagnostic tools in both practice and research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Petróczi
- Kingston University London, United Kingdom; University of Sheffield, United Kingdom.
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Khan S, Petróczi A. Stimulus-response compatibility tests of implicit preference for food and body image to identify people at risk for disordered eating: a validation study. Eat Behav 2015; 16:54-63. [PMID: 25464068 DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to incorporate implicit measures of relevant social cognition into eating disorder research. Fifty-three females diagnosed with an eating disorder (ED), and 41 at-risk females were recruited via ED support websites, along with 23 healthy females for comparison. Computerised online tests assessing subconscious normative ideal body image (IBI-BIAT) and personalised self-identification body image (PBI-BIAT) associations and food preferences (FP-AAT) were administered, followed by the modified version of the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q). Anthropometric data, age, need for social approval, self-reported measures of self-esteem, normative perception and body image satisfaction were recorded. Self-reported diagnosed ED status was corroborated with BMI and EDE-Q. Diagnostic performance of the implicit measures was assessed with ROC analysis. Those diagnosed with ED showed significantly stronger automatic preferences for and self-identification with thin body image, compared to healthy females, but no differences were found in food preferences. The IBI-BIAT showed better diagnostic power than PBI-BIAT, correctly classifying 87% of the diagnosed participants. No correlation was found between IBI-BIAT and the explicit measures. The results suggest that the underlying subconscious social cognitive factors of pathological eating are linked to body image, not to food items per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saira Khan
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, United Kingdom.
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Fakhri E, Petróczi A, Naughton DP. Assessing the efficacies of phenolic compounds in pomegranate juice using thin-layer chromatography. ACTA CHROMATOGR 2014. [DOI: 10.1556/achrom.26.2014.3.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Vargo EJ, James RA, Agyeman K, MacPhee T, McIntyre R, Ronca F, Petróczi A. Perceptions of assisted cognitive and sport performance enhancement among university students in England. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Petróczi A, Dodge T, Backhouse SH, Adesanwo C. Review of the literature on negative health risks based interventions to guide anabolic steroid misuse prevention. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2014.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Nepusz T, Petróczi A, Naughton DP, Epton T, Norman P. Estimating the prevalence of socially sensitive behaviors: attributing guilty and innocent noncompliance with the single sample count method. Psychol Methods 2013; 19:334-55. [PMID: 24295152 DOI: 10.1037/a0034961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Prevalence estimation models, using randomized or fuzzy responses, provide protection against exposure to respondents beyond anonymity and represent a useful research tool in socially sensitive situations. However, both guilty and innocent noncompliance can have a profound impact on prevalence estimations derived from these models. In this article, we introduce the maximum-likelihood extension of the single sample count (SSC-MLE) estimation model to detect and attribute noncompliance through testing 5 competing hypotheses on possible ways of noncompliance. We demonstrate the ability of the SSC-MLE to estimate and attribute noncompliance with a single sample using the observed distribution of affirmative answers on recent recreational drug use from a sample of university students (N = 1,441). Based on the survey answers, the drug use prevalence was estimated at 17.62% (± 6.75%), which is in line with relevant drug use statistics. Only 2.51% (± 1.54%) were noncompliant, of which 0.55% (± 0.44%) was attributed to guilty noncompliance (i.e., have used drugs but did not admit) and 2.17% (± 1.44%) to innocent noncompliers with no drug use in the past 3 months to hide. The SSC-MLE indirect estimation method represents an important tool for estimating the prevalence of a broad range of socially sensitive behaviors. Subsequent applications of the SSC-MLE to a range of transgressive behaviors with varying sensitivity will contribute to establishing the SSC-MLE's performance properties, along with obtaining empirical evidence to test the underlying assumption of independence of noncompliance from involvement. Freely downloadable, user-friendly software to facilitate applications of the SSC-MLE model is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Tracy Epton
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield
| | - Paul Norman
- Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield
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Petróczi A. The doping mindset – Part II: Potentials and pitfalls in capturing athletes’ doping attitudes with response-time methodology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Vargo EJ, Petróczi A. Detecting cocaine use? The autobiographical implicit association test (aIAT) produces false positives in a real-world setting. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2013; 8:22. [PMID: 23767665 PMCID: PMC3685584 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-8-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The autobiographical Implicit Association Test (aIAT) is a novel application of the implicit association concept for detecting life events. It has been used to reveal concealed knowledge in clinical and forensic settings, including detecting drug use. In this study, we aimed to explore the functionality of the aIAT to identify drug use in real-world settings. METHODS The study used mixed methodology with known groups of drug users and nonusers. Recreational cocaine users (n = 23) and non-users (n = 23) were recruited through ethnographic methodology and assessed using a bespoke brief aIAT for cocaine use. An identical aIAT test for heroin detection was also administered to a sub-sample of 10 cocaine users and 13 nonusers. The accuracy of the cocaine aIAT was measured through ROC analysis. Paradoxical aIAT results were explored by integrating craving, consumption measures and life-story interviews into the analysis. RESULTS Whilst the two brief aIATs showed good concurrent validity for cocaine users by accurately detecting drug using status for 18 of the 23 users (78.3%), the test falsely reported 61% cocaine users in the non-user comparison group. The average D-scores were 0.257±0.246 for the cocaine users and 0.134±0.367 for the non-users, showing no discriminatory power (t(44) = 1.339, p = 0.187; AUC = 0.605, p = 0.223). Results were independent from craving and recent cocaine use. The comparison group's cocaine and heroin aIAT scores correlated significantly (r(13) = 0.776, p = 0.002) whilst an accurate absence of such relationship was evidenced in the cocaine using sample (r(10) = 0.061, p = 0.866). Triangulation with life-story interviews suggests that in the absence of an autobiographical event, this test may measure an alternative cognitive construct linked to the Self-concept. CONCLUSION The aIAT is a variant of an attitude measure and can be better rationalized if propositional thinking is implied to explain outcomes. The Relational Frame and Social Knowledge Structure theories can perhaps provide a more plausible theoretical background. Further work is required to clarify which factors underlie this testing technique's functioning. Reappraisal is advised before further forensic use of the instrument to ensure that general associations not related to autobiographical memory do not confound results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Julie Vargo
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames Surrey KT1 2EE, UK
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames Surrey KT1 2EE, UK
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Abstract
This paper extends classical work on economics of doping into a multi-player game setting. Apart from being among the first papers formally formulating and analysing a multi-player doping situation, we find interesting results related to different types of Nash-equilibria (NE). Based mainly on analytic results, we claim at least two different NE structures linked to the choice of prize functions. Linear prize functions provide NEs characterised by either everyone or nobody taking drugs, while non-linear prize functions lead to qualitatively different NEs with significantly more complex predictive characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjetil K. Haugen
- Faculty of Economics, Informatics and Social Science, Molde Univeristy College, Molde, Norway
| | - Tamás Nepusz
- Department of Biological Physics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, Surrey, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Deshmukh NI, Zachar G, Petróczi A, Székely AD, Barker J, Naughton DP. Determination of stanozolol and 3'-hydroxystanozolol in rat hair, urine and serum using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Chem Cent J 2012; 6:162. [PMID: 23259549 PMCID: PMC3542005 DOI: 10.1186/1752-153x-6-162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Anabolic androgenic steroids, such as stanozolol, are typically misused by athletes during preparation for competition. Out-of-competition testing presents a unique challenge in the current anti-doping detection system owing to logistic reasons. Analysing hair for the presence of a prohibited drug offers a feasible solution for covering the wider window in out-of-competition testing. To assist in vivo studies aiming to establish a relationship between drug levels detected in hair, urine and blood, sensitive methods for the determination of stanozolol and its major metabolite 3′-hydroxystanozolol were developed in pigmented hair, urine and serum, using brown Norway rats as a model system and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results For method development, spiked drug free rat hair, blood and urine samples were used. The newly developed method was then applied to hair, urine and serum samples from five brown Norway rats after treatment (intraperitoneal) with stanozolol for six consecutive days at 5.0 mg/kg/day. The assay for each matrix was linear within the quantification range with determination coefficient (r2) values above 0.995. The respective assay was capable of detecting 0.125 pg/mg stanozolol and 0.25 pg/mg 3′-hydroxystanozolol with 50 mg hair; 0.063 ng/mL stanozolol and 0.125 ng/mL 3′-hydroxystanozolol with 100 μL of urine or serum. The accuracy, precision and extraction recoveries of the assays were satisfactory for the detection of both compounds in all three matrices. The average concentrations of stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol, were as follows: hair = 70.18 ± 22.32 pg/mg and 13.01 ± 3.43 pg/mg; urine = 4.34 ± 6.54 ng/mL and 9.39 ± 7.42 ng/mL; serum = 7.75 ± 3.58 ng/mL and 7.16 ± 1.97 ng/mL, respectively. Conclusions The developed methods are sensitive, specific and reproducible for the determination of stanozolol and 3′-hydroxystanozolol in rat hair, urine and serum. These methods can be used for in vivo studies further investigating stanozolol metabolism, but also could be extended for doping testing. Owing to the complementary nature of these tests, with urine and serum giving information on recent drug use and hair providing retrospective information on habitual use, it is suggested that blood or urine tests could accompany hair analysis and thus avoid false doping results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawed Ik Deshmukh
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 2EE, UK.
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Whitaker L, Long J, Petróczi A, Backhouse S. Athletes’ perceptions of performance enhancing substance user and non-user prototypes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Jones G, Hawkins K, Mullin R, Nepusz T, Naughton DP, Sheeran P, Petróczi A. Understanding how adherence goals promote adherence behaviours: a repeated measure observational study with HIV seropositive patients. BMC Public Health 2012; 12:587. [PMID: 22853824 PMCID: PMC3490813 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The extent to which patients follow treatments as prescribed is pivotal to treatment success. An exceptionally high level (> 95%) of HIV medication adherence is required to suppress viral replication and protect the immune system and a similarly high level (> 80%) of adherence has also been suggested in order to benefit from prescribed exercise programmes. However, in clinical practice, adherence to both often falls below the desirable level. This project aims to investigate a wide range of psychological and personality factors that may lead to adherence/non-adherence to medical treatment and exercise programmes. METHODS HIV positive patients who are referred to the physiotherapist-led 10-week exercise programme as part of the standard care are continuously recruited. Data on social cognitive variables (attitude, intention, subjective norms, self-efficacy, and outcome beliefs) about the goal and specific behaviours, selected personality factors, perceived quality of life, physical activity, self-reported adherence and physical assessment are collected at baseline, at the end of the exercise programme and again 3 months later. The project incorporates objective measures of both exercise (attendance log and improvement in physical measures such as improved fitness level, weight loss, improved circumferential anthropometric measures) and medication adherence (verified by non-invasive hair analysis). DISCUSSION The novelty of this project comes from two key aspects, complemented with objective information on exercise and medication adherence. The project assesses beliefs about both the underlying goal such as following prescribed treatment; and about the specific behaviours such as undertaking the exercise or taking the medication, using both implicit and explicit assessments of patients' beliefs and attitudes. We predict that i) the way people think about the underlying goal of their treatments explains medication and exercise behaviours over and above the effects of the behaviour-specific thinking and ii) the relationship between adherence to exercise and to medical treatment is stronger among those with more favourable views about the goal. Results from this study should identify the key contributing factors to inform subsequent adherence research and afford a more streamlined assessment matrix. The project also aims to inform patient care practices. UK CLINICAL RESEARCH NETWORK REGISTRATION NUMBER: UKCRN 7842.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Jones
- Department of Physiotherapy, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Kim Hawkins
- Department of Physiotherapy, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Mullin
- Department of Physiotherapy, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Tamás Nepusz
- Department of Biological Physics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | - Paschal Sheeran
- Department of Psychology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University London, London, UK
- Department of Psychology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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Wheatley S, Khan S, Székely AD, Naughton DP, Petróczi A. Expanding the Female Athlete Triad concept to address a public health issue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2012.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Nepusz T, Petróczi A, Naughton DP. Interactive network analytical tool for instantaneous bespoke interrogation of food safety notifications. PLoS One 2012; 7:e35652. [PMID: 22530063 PMCID: PMC3329474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The globalization of food supply necessitates continued advances in regulatory control measures to ensure that citizens enjoy safe and adequate nutrition. The aim of this study was to extend previous reports on network analysis relating to food notifications by including an optional filter by type of notification and in cases of contamination, by type of contaminant in the notified foodstuff. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A filter function has been applied to enable processing of selected notifications by contaminant or type of notification to i) capture complexity, ii) analyze trends, and iii) identify patterns of reporting activities between countries. The program rapidly assesses nations' roles as transgressor and/or detector for each category of contaminant and for the key class of border rejection. In the open access demonstration version, the majority of notifications in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed were categorized by contaminant type as mycotoxin (50.4%), heavy metals (10.9%) or bacteria (20.3%). Examples are given demonstrating how network analytical approaches complement, and in some cases supersede, descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, which may give limited or potentially misleading information. One key feature is that network analysis takes the relationship between transgressor and detector countries, along with number of reports and impact simultaneously into consideration. Furhermore, the indices that compliment the network maps and reflect each country's transgressor and detector activities allow comparisons to be made between (transgressing vs. detecting) as well as within (e.g. transgressing) activities. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This further development of the network analysis approach to food safety contributes to a better understanding of the complexity of the effort ensuring food is safe for consumption in the European Union. The unique patterns of the interplay between detectors and transgressors, instantly revealed by our approach, could supplement the intelligence gathered by regulatory authorities and inform risk based sampling protocols.
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Breidi SE, Barker J, Petróczi A, Naughton DP. Enzymatic digestion and selective quantification of underivatised delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cocaine in human hair using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Anal Methods Chem 2012; 2012:907893. [PMID: 22567573 PMCID: PMC3335444 DOI: 10.1155/2012/907893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) methods for drug analysis routinely employ derivatising reagents. The aim of this paper was to develop a method for the analysis of two recreational drugs, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) and cocaine in hair samples using GC-MS, without prior derivatisation, thus allowing the sample to be reanalysed in its original form. An enzymatic digestion technique was also developed. Ten hair samples, that were known positive for either Δ(9)-THC and/or cocaine, were enzymatically digested, extracted, and then analysed by GC-MS. All samples measured contained Δ(9)-THC and one sample contained cocaine. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) were 0.02 ng/mg and 0.05 ng/mg, respectively, for cocaine and 0.015 ng/mg and 0.02 ng/mg, respectively, for Δ(9)-THC. The wide detection window, ease of direct analysis by GC-MS, lower detection limits of underivatised samples, and the stability of drugs using this technique may offer an improved method of analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salah Eddine Breidi
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, London KT1 2EE, UK
| | - James Barker
- School of Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, London KT1 2EE, UK
| | - Andrea Petróczi
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, London KT1 2EE, UK
| | - Declan P. Naughton
- School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, London KT1 2EE, UK
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Backhouse SH, Whitaker L, Petróczi A. Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2011; 23:244-52. [PMID: 22092778 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01374.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Nutritional supplement (NS) use is widespread in sport. This study applied an integrated social cognitive approach to examine doping attitudes, beliefs, and self-reported doping use behavior across NS users (n = 96) and nonusers (n = 116). Following ethical approval, 212 competitive athletes (age mean = 21.4, s = 4.5; 137 males) completed self-reported measures of doping-related social cognitions and behaviors, presented in an online format where completion implied consent. Significantly more NS users (22.9%) reported doping compared with nonusers (6.0%; U = 4628.0, P < 0.05). NS users presented significantly more positive attitudes toward doping (U = 3152.0, P < 0.05) and expressed a significantly greater belief that doping is effective (U = 3152.0, P < 0.05). When presented with the scenario that performance-enhancing substances are effective and increase the possibility of winning, NS users were significantly more in favor of competing in situations that allow doping (U = 3504.5, P < 0.05). In sum, doping use is three-and-a-half times more prevalent in NS users compared with nonusers. This finding is accompanied by significant differences in doping attitudes, norms, and beliefs. Thus, this article offers support for the gateway hypothesis; athletes who engage in legal performance enhancement practices appear to embody an "at-risk" group for transition toward doping. Education should be appropriately targeted.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Backhouse
- Carnegie Research Institute, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, United Kingdom.
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Petróczi A, Nepusz T, Cross P, Taft H, Shah S, Deshmukh N, Schaffer J, Shane M, Adesanwo C, Barker J, Naughton DP. New non-randomised model to assess the prevalence of discriminating behaviour: a pilot study on mephedrone. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2011; 6:20. [PMID: 21812979 PMCID: PMC3163613 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-6-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Background An advantage of randomised response and non-randomised models investigating sensitive issues arises from the characteristic that individual answers about discriminating behaviour cannot be linked to the individuals. This study proposed a new fuzzy response model coined 'Single Sample Count' (SSC) to estimate prevalence of discriminating or embarrassing behaviour in epidemiologic studies. Methods The SSC was tested and compared to the established Forced Response (FR) model estimating Mephedrone use. Estimations from both SSC and FR were then corroborated with qualitative hair screening data. Volunteers (n = 318, mean age = 22.69 ± 5.87, 59.1% male) in a rural area in north Wales and a metropolitan area in England completed a questionnaire containing the SSC and FR in alternating order, and four questions canvassing opinions and beliefs regarding Mephedrone. Hair samples were screened for Mephedrone using a qualitative Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry method. Results The SSC algorithm improves upon the existing item count techniques by utilizing known population distributions and embeds the sensitive question among four unrelated innocuous questions with binomial distribution. Respondents are only asked to indicate how many without revealing which ones are true. The two probability models yielded similar estimates with the FR being between 2.6% - 15.0%; whereas the new SSC ranged between 0% - 10%. The six positive hair samples indicated that the prevalence rate in the sample was at least 4%. The close proximity of these estimates provides evidence to support the validity of the new SSC model. Using simulations, the recommended sample sizes as the function of the statistical power and expected prevalence rate were calculated. Conclusion The main advantages of the SSC over other indirect methods are: simple administration, completion and calculation, maximum use of the data and good face validity for all respondents. Owing to the key feature that respondents are not required to answer the sensitive question directly, coupled with the absence of forced response or obvious self-protective response strategy, the SSC has the potential to cut across self-protective barriers more effectively than other estimation models. This elegantly simple, quick and effective method can be successfully employed in public health research investigating compromising behaviours.
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