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Li K, Zheng J, Yu L, Wang B, Pan L. Exploration of the Strategy for Improving the Expression of Heterologous Sweet Protein Monellin in Aspergillus niger. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9050528. [PMID: 37233239 DOI: 10.3390/jof9050528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus niger is a primary cell factory for food-grade protein (enzyme) production due to its strong protein secretion capacity and unique safety characteristics. The bottleneck issue for the current A. niger expression system is the difference in expression yield of heterologous proteins of non-fungal origin compared to those of fungal origin, which is about three orders of magnitude. The sweet protein monellin, derived from West African plants, has the potential to become a food-grade sweetener due to its high sweetness and the benefit of not containing sugar itself, but it is extremely difficult to establish a research model for heterologous expression in A. niger, owing to extremely low expression, a small molecular weight, and being undetectable with conventional protein electrophoresis. HiBiT-Tag was fused with low-expressing monellin in this work to create a research model for heterologous protein expression in A. niger at ultra-low levels. We increased monellin expression by increasing the monellin copy number, fusing monellin with the endogenous highly expressed glycosylase glaA, and eliminating extracellular protease degradation, among other strategies. In addition, we investigated the effects of overexpression of molecular chaperones, inhibiting the ERAD pathway, and enhancing the synthesis of phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylcholine, and diglycerides in the biomembrane system. Using medium optimization, we finally obtained 0.284 mg/L of monellin in the supernatant of the shake flask. This is the first time recombinant monellin has been expressed in A. niger, with the goal of investigating ways to improve the secretory expression of heterologous proteins at ultra-low levels, which can serve as a model for the expression of other heterologous proteins in A. niger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Li
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Junwei Zheng
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Leyi Yu
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Bin Wang
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Li Pan
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Wang L, Xie Y, Chang J, Wang J, Liu H, Shi M, Zhong Y. A novel sucrose-inducible expression system and its application for production of biomass-degrading enzymes in Aspergillus niger. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS AND BIOPRODUCTS 2023; 16:23. [PMID: 36782304 PMCID: PMC9926565 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02274-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Filamentous fungi are extensively exploited as important enzyme producers due to the superior secretory capability. However, the complexity of their secretomes greatly impairs the titer and purity of heterologous enzymes. Meanwhile, high-efficient evaluation and production of bulk enzymes, such as biomass-degrading enzymes, necessitate constructing powerful expression systems for bio-refinery applications. RESULTS A novel sucrose-inducible expression system based on the host strain Aspergillus niger ATCC 20611 and the β-fructofuranosidase promoter (PfopA) was constructed. A. niger ATCC 20611 preferentially utilized sucrose for rapid growth and β-fructofuranosidase production. Its secretory background was relatively clean because β-fructofuranosidase, the key enzyme responsible for sucrose utilization, was essentially not secreted into the medium and the extracellular protease activity was low. Furthermore, the PfopA promoter showed a sucrose concentration-dependent induction pattern and was not subject to glucose repression. Moreover, the strength of PfopA was 7.68-fold higher than that of the commonly used glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter (PgpdA) with enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) as a reporter. Thus, A. niger ATCC 20611 coupled with the PfopA promoter was used as an expression system to express a β-glucosidase gene (bgla) from A. niger C112, allowing the production of β-glucosidase at a titer of 17.84 U/mL. The crude β-glucosidase preparation could remarkably improve glucose yield in the saccharification of pretreated corncob residues when added to the cellulase mixture of Trichoderma reesei QM9414. The efficacy of this expression system was further demonstrated by co-expressing the T. reesei-derived chitinase Chi46 and β-N-acetylglucosaminidase Nag1 to obtain an efficient chitin-degrading enzyme cocktail, which could achieve the production of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine from colloidal chitin with a conversion ratio of 91.83%. Besides, the purity of the above-secreted biomass-degrading enzymes in the crude culture supernatant was over 86%. CONCLUSIONS This PfopA-driven expression system expands the genetic toolbox of A. niger and broadens the application field of the traditional fructo-oligosaccharides-producing strain A. niger ATCC 20611, advancing it to become a high-performing enzyme-producing cell factory. In particular, the sucrose-inducible expression system possessed the capacity to produce biomass-degrading enzymes at a high level and evade endogenous protein interference, providing a potential purification-free enzyme production platform for bio-refinery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Wang
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yijia Xie
- Qingdao Academy, Qingdao, 266111 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingjing Chang
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Juan Wang
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Hong Liu
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Mei Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yaohua Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, People's Republic of China.
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Tang X, Liu CL, Chen YY, Wei Y, Zhuang XY, Xiao Q, Chen J, Chen FQ, Yang QM, Weng HF, Fang BS, Zhang YH, Xiao AF. Combination of simultaneous extraction–hydrolysis and intermittent feeding of tara pod for efficient production of gallic acid. Biochem Eng J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2022.108666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Pestalotiopsis mangiferae isolated from cocoa leaves and concomitant tannase and gallic acid production. Fungal Biol 2022; 126:471-479. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Liang S, Granato D, Zou C, Gao Y, Zhu Y, Zhang L, Yin JF, Zhou W, Xu YQ. Processing technologies for manufacturing tea beverages: From traditional to advanced hybrid processes. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Ordaz-Pérez D, Fuentes-Garibay JA, Guerrero-Olazarán M, Viader-Salvadó JM. Sequence Engineering of an Aspergillus niger Tannase to Produce in Pichia pastoris a Single-Chain Enzyme with High Specific Activity. Mol Biotechnol 2021; 64:388-400. [PMID: 34655039 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-021-00416-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tannin acyl hydrolases or tannases (E.C.3.1.1.20) are enzymes that hydrolyze the ester bond of tannins to produce gallic acid and glucose. We engineered the Aspergillus niger GH1 tannase sequence and Pichia pastoris strains to produce and secrete the enzyme as a single-chain protein. The recombinant tannase was N-glycosylated, had a molecular mass after N-deglycosylation of 65.4 kDa, and showed activity over broad pH and temperature ranges, with optimum pH and temperature of 5.0 and 20 °C. Furthermore, the single-chain tannase had an 11-fold increased specific activity in comparison to the double-chain A. niger GH1 tannase, which was also produced in P. pastoris. Structural analysis suggested that the high specific activity may be due to the presence of a flexible loop in the lid domain, which can control and drive the substrate to the active site. In contrast, the low specific activity of the double-chain tannase may be due to the presence of a disordered and flexible loop that could hinder the substrate's access to the binding site. Based on its biochemical properties, high specific activity, and the possibility of its production in P. pastoris, the tannase described could be used in food and beverage processing at low and medium temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ordaz-Pérez
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Av. Universidad S/N, Col. Ciudad Universitaria, 66455, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - José Antonio Fuentes-Garibay
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Av. Universidad S/N, Col. Ciudad Universitaria, 66455, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Martha Guerrero-Olazarán
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Av. Universidad S/N, Col. Ciudad Universitaria, 66455, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - José María Viader-Salvadó
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Av. Universidad S/N, Col. Ciudad Universitaria, 66455, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico.
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Dong L, McKinstry WJ, Pan L, Newman J, Ren B. Crystal structure of fungal tannase from Aspergillus niger. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 77:267-277. [DOI: 10.1107/s2059798320016484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Tannases are serine esterases that were first discovered in fungi more than one and half centuries ago. They catalyze the hydrolysis of the gallolyl ester bonds in gallotannins to release gallic acid, which is an important intermediate in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Since their discovery, fungal tannases have found wide industrial applications, although there is scarce knowledge about these enzymes at the molecular level, including their catalytic and substrate-binding sites. While this lack of knowledge hinders engineering efforts to modify the enzymes, many tannases have been isolated from various fungal strains in a search for the desired enzymatic properties. Here, the first crystal structure of a fungal tannase, that from Aspergillus niger, is reported. The enzyme possesses a typical α/β-hydrolase-fold domain with a large inserted cap domain, which together form a bowl-shaped hemispherical shape with a surface concavity surrounded by N-linked glycans. Gallic acid is bound at the junction of the two domains within the concavity by forming two hydrogen-bonding networks with neighbouring residues. One is formed around the carboxyl group of the gallic acid and involves residues from the hydrolase-fold domain, including those from the catalytic triad, which consists of Ser206, His485 and Asp439. The other is formed around the three hydroxyl groups of the compound, with the involvement of residues mainly from the cap domain, including Gln238, Gln239, His242 and Ser441. Gallic acid is bound in a sandwich-like mode by forming a hydrophobic contact with Ile442. All of these residues are found to be highly conserved among fungal and yeast tannases.
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Zhu SY, Xu Y, Yu XW. Improved Homologous Expression of the Acidic Lipase from Aspergillus niger. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 30:196-205. [PMID: 31752069 PMCID: PMC9728306 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.1906.06028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the acidic lipase from Aspergillus niger (ANL) was homologously expressed in A. niger. The expression of ANL was significantly improved by the expression of the native ANL with the introns, the addition of the Kozak sequence and the optimization of the signal sequences. When the cDNA sequence of ANL fused with the glaA signal was expressed under the gpdA promoter in A. niger, no lipase activity could be detected. We then tried to improve the expression by using the full-length ANL gene containing three introns, and the lipase activity in the supernatant reached 75.80 U/ml, probably as a result of a more stable mRNA structure. The expression was further improved to 100.60 U/ml by introducing a Kozak sequence around the start codon due to a higher translation efficiency. Finally, the effects of three signal sequences including the cbhI signal, the ANL signal and the glaA signal on the lipase expression were evaluated. The transformant with the cbhI signal showed the highest lipase activity (314.67 U/ml), which was 1.90-fold and 3.13-fold higher than those with the ANL signal and the glaA signal, respectively. The acidic lipase was characterized and its highest activity was detected at pH 3.0 and a temperature of 45°C. These results provided promising strategies for the production of the acidic lipase from A. niger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yuan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Yan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Wei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China,Corresponding author Phone: +86-510-85918201 Fax: +86-510-85918201 E-mail:
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Thermostable Tannase from Aspergillus Niger and Its Application in the Enzymatic Extraction of Green Tea. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25040952. [PMID: 32093395 PMCID: PMC7070470 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tannase is widely used in tea beverage processing because of its ability to catalyze the hydrolysis of hydrolysable tannins or gallic acid esters and effectively improve the quality of tea extracts through enzymatic extraction. A new thermophilic tannase was cloned from Aspergillus niger FJ0118 and characterized. The tannase exhibited an optimal reaction temperature of 80 °C and retained 89.6% of the initial activity after incubation at 60 °C for 2 h. The enzymatic extraction of green tea at high temperature (70 °C) for a short time (40 min) was devised on the basis of the superior thermal stability of tannase. The enzymatic reaction significantly increased the total polyphenol content of green tea extract from 137 g·kg−1 to 291 g·kg−1. The enzymatic reaction effectively degraded the ester catechins into non-ester catechins compared with the water extraction method. Results suggested that the thermally stable tannase exhibited potential applications in the enzymatic extraction of green tea beverage.
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Improving expression of thermostable trehalase from Myceliophthora sepedonium in Aspergillus niger mediated by the CRISPR/Cas9 tool and its purification, characterization. Protein Expr Purif 2020; 165:105482. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2019.105482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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High-level expression of highly active and thermostable trehalase from Myceliophthora thermophila in Aspergillus niger by using the CRISPR/Cas9 tool and its application in ethanol fermentation. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 47:133-144. [PMID: 31786675 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-019-02252-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Trehalase catalyzes the hydrolysis of the non-reducing disaccharide trehalose. The highly active trehalase MthT from Myceliophthora thermophila was screened from the trehalase genes of six species of filamentous fungi. An ingenious multi-copy knock-in expression strategy mediated by the CRISPR/Cas9 tool and medium optimization were used to improve MthT production in Aspergillus niger, up to 1698.83 U/mL. The protein background was dramatically abated due to insertion. The recombinant MthT showed optimal activity at pH 5.5 and 60 °C, and exhibited prominent thermal stability between 50 and 60 °C under acid conditions (pH 4.5-6.5). The ethanol conversion rate (ethanol yield/total glucose) was significantly improved by addition of MthT (51.88%) compared with MthT absence (34.38%), using 30% starch saccharification liquid. The results of this study provided an effective strategy, established a convenient platform for heterologous expression in A. niger and showed a potential strategy to decrease production costs in industrial ethanol production.
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Aharwar A, Parihar DK. Talaromyces verruculosus tannase production, characterization and application in fruit juices detannification. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Wu Z. Mixed fermentation of Aspergillus niger and Candida shehatae to produce bioethanol with ionic-liquid-pretreated bagasse. 3 Biotech 2019; 9:41. [PMID: 30675451 PMCID: PMC6328811 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-019-1570-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, bagasse was pretreated with ionic liquid (IL) 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Bmim]Cl) and 1% NaOH solution for initial activation of bagasse. A mixed fermentation of treated bagasse by Aspergillus niger and Candida shehatae showed the optimal conditions with the addition of C. shehatae 12 h later at a 1:1 proportion to A. niger. To further improve the ethanol production and obtain optimal fermentation conditions, a Plackett-Burman design was applied to screen the significant formulation and process variables. The optimal ethanol fermentation conditions with IL pretreated bagasse were determined using response surface methodology by Box-Behnken design. Three variables "initial pH, (NH4)2SO4, fermentation time" were regarded as significant factors in the optimization study. The resulting optimum fermentation conditions for bioethanol was identified as: initial pH of 5.89, (NH4)2SO4 concentration of 0.40 g/50 mL, and fermentation time of 3.60 days. The verification experimental ethanol concentration was 8.14 g/L, which agreed with the predicted value. An enhancement of approximately 153.58% compared with initial fermentation conditions in ethanol production was found using optimized conditions. It demonstrated that optimization methodology had a positive effect on the improvement of ethanol production. Under the optimal fermentation medium and conditions, the ethanol production with IL-pretreated bagasse and untreated bagasse was 8.14 g/L and 5.03 g/L, respectively, which exhibited 62% increase, compared to initial conditions with production of 3.21 g/L and 2.67 g/L, respectively, which displayed 20% increase. Both under optimal and original fermentation conditions, compared to the fermentation medium with untreated bagasse, all the results indicated that IL-pretreated bagasse resulted in higher ethanol production than untreated bagasse, demonstrating that IL-pretreated bagasse successfully increased the ethanol production in the mixed fermentation by A. niger and C. shehatae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaiqiang Wu
- Center for Molecular Metabolism, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 China
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Karakus BZ, Korkmaz İ, Demirci K, Sinan Arslan K, Unlu O, Catal T. A combined treatment using ethylmethane sulfonate and ultraviolet light to compare amylase production by three Bacillus sp. isolates. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2018; 48:815-822. [PMID: 30265205 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2018.1509088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, three Bacillus sp.-producing amylase enzymes were isolated from soil samples and identified using 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Amylase production and total protein productions were spectrophotometrically measured. The following media were tested to increase enzyme production: LB medium and molasses. Three Bacillus sp. were identified as follows: Bacillus subtilis subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus cereus. Amylase production levels were in the range of 10 U/mL, whereas total protein production levels were at 15 mg/mL. Higher amylase activity was found in the Bacillus subtilis isolate. Ethylmethane sulfonate (EMS) and ultraviolet (UV) mutagenesis in combination were applied to compare amylase production. Amylase activity was increased to around 58% in the treatment with 0.03 mL of EMS and UV when compared to the control group. A pilot scale bioreactor with a total working volume of 10 liters was used to produce amylase by B. subtilis subtilis. In conclusion, B. subtilis subtilis can be used to produce amylase enzyme for various industrial purposes, and, for the first time, the amylase activities of B. subtilis can be enhanced with EMS and UV treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betul Zehra Karakus
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - İlknur Korkmaz
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Kubra Demirci
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Kadir Sinan Arslan
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Ozge Unlu
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Tunc Catal
- a Istanbul Protein Reserach and Inovation Center (PROMER) , Istanbul , Turkey.,b Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics , Uskudar University , Istanbul , Turkey
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