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Hull EM, Dominguez JM. Neuroendocrine Regulation of Male Sexual Behavior. Compr Physiol 2019; 9:1383-1410. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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2
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Zandi MR, Jafarzadeh Shirazi MR, Tamadon A, Akhlaghi A, Salehi MS, Niazi A, Moghadam A. Hypothalamic Expression of Melanocortin-4 Receptor and Agouti-related Peptide mRNAs During the Estrous Cycle of Rats. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR MEDICINE 2014; 3:183-9. [PMID: 25317405 PMCID: PMC4170492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Melanocortin- 4 receptor (MC4R) and agouti- related peptide (AgRP) are involved in energy homeostasis in rats. According to MC4R and AgRP effects on luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion, they may influence the estrous cycle of rats. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the expression of MC4R and AgRP mRNAs at different stages of estrous cycle in the rat's hypothalamus. The estrous cycle stages (proestrus, estrus, metestrus and diestrus) were determined in 20 adult female rats using vaginal smears. The rats were divided into four equal groups (n=5). Four ovariectomized rats were selected as controls two weeks after surgery. Using real- time PCR, relative expressions (compared to controls) of MC4R and AgRP mRNAs in the hypothalamus of rats were compared in four different groups of estrous cycle. The relative expression of MC4R mRNA in the hypothalamus of female rats during proestrus stage was higher than those in other stages (P=0.001). Despite a lower mean of relative expression of AgRP mRNA at proestrus stage, the relative expression of AgRP mRNA of the four stages of estrous cycle did not differ (P>0.05). In conclusion, changes in the relative expression of MC4R and AgRP mRNAs in four stages of rat estrous cycle indicated a stimulatory role of MC4R in the proestrus and preovulatory stages and an inhibitory role of AgRP in gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and LH secretions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Zandi
- Department of Animal Sciences, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | | | - Amin Tamadon
- Transgenic Technology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.,Corresponding author: Transgenic Technology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Amir Akhlaghi
- Department of Animal Sciences, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Saied Salehi
- Department of Animal Sciences, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ali Niazi
- Biotechnology Research Center, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ali Moghadam
- Biotechnology Research Center, School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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3
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Andersson KE. Mechanisms of penile erection and basis for pharmacological treatment of erectile dysfunction. Pharmacol Rev 2011; 63:811-59. [PMID: 21880989 DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.004515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Erection is basically a spinal reflex that can be initiated by recruitment of penile afferents, both autonomic and somatic, and supraspinal influences from visual, olfactory, and imaginary stimuli. Several central transmitters are involved in the erectile control. Dopamine, acetylcholine, nitric oxide (NO), and peptides, such as oxytocin and adrenocorticotropin/α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, have a facilitatory role, whereas serotonin may be either facilitatory or inhibitory, and enkephalins are inhibitory. The balance between contractant and relaxant factors controls the degree of contraction of the smooth muscle of the corpora cavernosa (CC) and determines the functional state of the penis. Noradrenaline contracts both CC and penile vessels via stimulation of α₁-adrenoceptors. Neurogenic NO is considered the most important factor for relaxation of penile vessels and CC. The role of other mediators, released from nerves or endothelium, has not been definitely established. Erectile dysfunction (ED), defined as the "inability to achieve or maintain an erection adequate for sexual satisfaction," may have multiple causes and can be classified as psychogenic, vasculogenic or organic, neurologic, and endocrinologic. Many patients with ED respond well to the pharmacological treatments that are currently available, but there are still groups of patients in whom the response is unsatisfactory. The drugs used are able to substitute, partially or completely, the malfunctioning endogenous mechanisms that control penile erection. Most drugs have a direct action on penile tissue facilitating penile smooth muscle relaxation, including oral phosphodiesterase inhibitors and intracavernosal injections of prostaglandin E₁. Irrespective of the underlying cause, these drugs are effective in the majority of cases. Drugs with a central site of action have so far not been very successful. There is a need for therapeutic alternatives. This requires identification of new therapeutic targets and design of new approaches. Research in the field is expanding, and several promising new targets for future drugs have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- K-E Andersson
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston Salem, NC 27157, USA.
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Albersen M, Shindel AW, Mwamukonda KB, Lue TF. The future is today: emerging drugs for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2010; 15:467-80. [PMID: 20415601 DOI: 10.1517/14728214.2010.480973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the most common male sexual dysfunction presented for treatment affecting between 10 and 20% of men. PDE type 5 inhibitors (PDE5I) now account for the largest segment of the ED market. While these drugs are highly efficacious for many men, a relatively large subset of ED patients who do not respond to PDE5I is increasingly recognized. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW In this review, we discuss clinical and preclinical evidence supporting various emerging compounds that regulate penile erection both centrally (clavulanic acid, dopamine and melanocortin receptor agonists) and peripherally (novel PDE5I, soluble and particulate guanylil cyclase activators, rho-kinase inhibitors and maxi-K channel openers). WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN The reader will gain a broad understanding of erectile (patho-)physiology and gain insights in the mechanisms of action, efficacy and adverse events of various compounds under development for the treatment of ED. TAKE HOME MESSAGE We expect emerging drugs to allow treatment protocols tailored to the specific needs of each individual patient, taking into consideration the efficacy of erectile performance enhancement and the potential for adverse events. This tailored approach may include combination of various emerging drugs to enhance efficacy in difficult-to-treat patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Albersen
- Basic Research Fellow Male Sexual Dysfunction, University of California at San Francisco, Department of Urology, Knuppe Molecular Urology Laboratory, Campus Box 0738, San Francisco, CA 94143-0738, USA
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D'Agostino G, Diano S. Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone: production and degradation. J Mol Med (Berl) 2010; 88:1195-201. [PMID: 20617297 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-010-0651-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 06/21/2010] [Accepted: 06/24/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a polypeptide hormone precursor that is expressed in the brain and in peripheral tissues such as in the pituitary gland, immune system, and skin. In the brain, POMC is processed to form several peptides including alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH). alpha-MSH is expressed in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus and in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the brainstem where it has a crucial role in the regulation of metabolic functions. Specifically, α-MSH is an anorexigenic peptide. Its production and maturation processes have been shown to be regulated according to the metabolic condition of the organism. This review summarizes our current knowledge on α-MSH processing including its maturation and degradation processes and pharmacological aspects of its manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe D'Agostino
- Program in Integrative Cell Signaling and Neurobiology of Metabolism, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Gratzke C, Angulo J, Chitaley K, Dai YT, Kim NN, Paick JS, Simonsen U, Uckert S, Wespes E, Andersson KE, Lue TF, Stief CG. Anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of erectile dysfunction. J Sex Med 2010; 7:445-75. [PMID: 20092448 DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01624.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Significant scientific advances during the past 3 decades have deepened our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of penile erection. A critical evaluation of the current state of knowledge is essential to provide perspective for future research and development of new therapies. AIM To develop an evidence-based, state-of-the-art consensus report on the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of erectile dysfunction (ED). METHODS Consensus process over a period of 16 months, representing the opinions of 12 experts from seven countries. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Expert opinion was based on the grading of scientific and evidence-based medical literature, internal committee discussion, public presentation, and debate. RESULTS ED occurs from multifaceted, complex mechanisms that can involve disruptions in neural, vascular, and hormonal signaling. Research on central neural regulation of penile erection is progressing rapidly with the identification of key neurotransmitters and the association of neural structures with both spinal and supraspinal pathways that regulate sexual function. In parallel to advances in cardiovascular physiology, the most extensive efforts in the physiology of penile erection have focused on elucidating mechanisms that regulate the functions of the endothelium and vascular smooth muscle of the corpus cavernosum. Major health concerns such as atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (MetS) have become well integrated into the investigation of ED. CONCLUSIONS Despite the efficacy of current therapies, they remain insufficient to address growing patient populations, such as those with diabetes and MetS. In addition, increasing awareness of the adverse side effects of commonly prescribed medications on sexual function provides a rationale for developing new treatment strategies that minimize the likelihood of causing sexual dysfunction. Many basic questions with regard to erectile function remain unanswered and further laboratory and clinical studies are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Gratzke
- Department of Urology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, München, Germany
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Sandner P, Svenstrup N, Tinel H, Haning H, Bischoff E. Phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors and erectile dysfunction. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2008. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.18.1.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Hofbauer KG, Nicholson JR, Boss O. The Obesity Epidemic: Current and Future Pharmacological Treatments. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2007; 47:565-92. [PMID: 17002599 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The unabated rise in the prevalence of obesity is a challenge for global health care systems. Efforts to reverse this trend by dietary or behavioral counseling have not been successful, which has stimulated efforts to find a role for pharmacotherapy. Currently only a small number of antiobesity drugs are approved for long-term use and only a few compounds are in clinical development. Despite recent progress in the understanding of the regulation of energy balance, drug discovery has been less productive than expected. In the present review, the clinically available antiobesity agents are discussed. Examples of drug candidates that are currently in development are given and the possible future range of antiobesity agents is illustrated by the targets being addressed in drug discovery. Finally, the efficacy of antiobesity agents and their value in the treatment of obesity are assessed in comparison with other therapeutic approaches, such as surgery and changes in lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl G Hofbauer
- Applied Pharmacology, Biozentrum/Pharmazentrum, University of Basel, CH 4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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Chen C. Recent progress toward nonpeptide ligands for the melanocortin-4 receptor. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2007; 45:111-67. [PMID: 17280903 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6468(06)45503-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chen Chen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Neurocrine Biosciences, Inc., 12700 El Camino Real, San Diego, CA 92130, USA
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10
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King SH, Mayorov AV, Balse-Srinivasan P, Hruby VJ, Vanderah TW, Wessells H. Melanocortin receptors, melanotropic peptides and penile erection. Curr Top Med Chem 2007; 7:1098-1106. [PMID: 17584130 PMCID: PMC2694735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Penile erection is a complex physiologic event resulting from the interactions of the nervous system on a highly specialized vascular organ. Activation of central nervous system melanocortinergic (MC) receptors with either endogenous or synthetic melanotropic ligands may initiate and/or facilitate spontaneous penile erection. While the CNS contains principally the MC3 and MC4 receptor subtypes, there is conflicting data as to which receptor mediates erection. Although the MC4R is emerging as the principle effector of MC induced erection, the role of the MC3R is poorly understood. Manipulation of each receptor subtype with newly synthesized receptor specific agonists and antagonists, as well as knockout mice, has elucidated their individual contributions. Novel data from our laboratories suggests that antagonism of forebrain MC3R may enhance melanocortin-induced erections. Furthermore, melanocortin agents may interact with better-studied systems such as oxytocinergic pathways at the hypothalamic, brainstem or spinal level. Current therapies for erectile dysfunction target end organ vascular tissue. Manipulation of MC receptors may provide an alternative, centrally mediated therapeutic approach for erectile and other sexual dysfunctions. The non-specific "superpotent" MC agonist, PT-141, which is the carboxylate derivative of MT-II, has reached phase II human trials. Through their centrally mediated activity, melanocortin agonists have potential to treat erectile dysfunction as well as possible applications to the unmet medical needs of decreased sexual motivation and loss of libido.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Hunter Wessells
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Urology, University of Washington, Harborview Medical Center, 325 Ninth Avenue, Seattle Washington 98104; Tel: 206-731-3205; Fax: 206-731-4709; E-mail:
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Selkirk JV, Nottebaum LM, Lee J, Yang W, Foster AC, Lechner SM. Identification of differential melanocortin 4 receptor agonist profiles at natively expressed receptors in rat cortical astrocytes and recombinantly expressed receptors in human embryonic kidney cells. Neuropharmacology 2006; 52:459-66. [PMID: 17095023 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2006] [Revised: 08/01/2006] [Accepted: 08/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Using cAMP accumulation as a functional readout, we pharmacologically characterized the response of native melanocortin receptors in cultured rat astrocytes, and found this response to be mediated by the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R). Melancortin agonists stimulate cAMP in a concentration-dependent manner in both astrocytes and human embryonic kidney cells recombinantly expressing rat MC4R (HEK-rMC4R), however, the relative potency and intrinsic activity of both small molecule and peptide agonists are reduced in the native system. As such, the small molecules THIQ, NBI-702 and MB243 display 43, 30 and 18% of the maximal response elicited by alpha-MSH in astrocytes. Likewise, the peptides MTII and ACTH display 55 and 72% of the maximal response elicited by alpha-MSH in these cells. In contrast, all of these compounds elicit full agonist responses with similar intrinsic activity to alpha-MSH in HEK-rMC4R cells. MC4R mRNA was detected in astrocytes, however radioligand binding experiments failed to detect measurable MC4R in astrocyte membranes, in contrast to membranes from HEK-rMC4R cells that display a binding site density of 18.1+/-1.5 fmol/mg. We propose that the divergent observations in functional activity between the cell types reflect differences in receptor expression and that caution should be exercised when interpreting agonist activity in over-expression systems for the purposes of drug discovery.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Astrocytes
- Binding Sites/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cerebral Cortex/cytology
- Cyclic AMP/metabolism
- Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Embryo, Mammalian
- Gene Expression Regulation/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation/physiology
- Hormones/pharmacology
- Humans
- Inhibitory Concentration 50
- Kidney
- Protein Binding/drug effects
- Rats
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/agonists
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/metabolism
- Time Factors
- alpha-MSH/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Selkirk
- Department of Neuroscience, Neurocrine Biosciences Inc., 12790 El Camino Real, San Diego, CA 92130, USA.
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12
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Adan RAH, Tiesjema B, Hillebrand JJG, la Fleur SE, Kas MJH, de Krom M. The MC4 receptor and control of appetite. Br J Pharmacol 2006; 149:815-27. [PMID: 17043670 PMCID: PMC2014686 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the human melanocortin (MC)4 receptor have been associated with obesity, which underscores the relevance of this receptor as a drug target to treat obesity. Infusion of MC4R agonists decreases food intake, whereas inhibition of MC receptor activity by infusion of an MC receptor antagonist or with the inverse agonist AgRP results in increased food intake. This review addresses the role of the MC system in different aspects of feeding behaviour. MC4R activity affects meal size and meal choice, but not meal frequency, and the type of diet affects the efficacy of MC4R agonists to reduce food intake. The central sites involved in the different aspects of feeding behaviour that are affected by MC4R signalling are being unravelled. The paraventricular nucleus plays an important role in food intake per se, whereas MC signalling in the lateral hypothalamus is associated with the response to a high fat diet. MC4R signalling in the brainstem has been shown to affect meal size. Further genetic, behavioural and brain-region specific studies need to clarify how the MC4R agonists affect feeding behaviour in order to determine which obese individuals would benefit most from treatment with these drugs. Application of MCR agonists in humans has already revealed side effects, such as penile erections, which may complicate introduction of these drugs in the treatment of obesity.
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MESH Headings
- Agouti-Related Protein
- Animals
- Anti-Obesity Agents/pharmacology
- Appetite Depressants/pharmacology
- Appetite Regulation/drug effects
- Brain/metabolism
- Diet
- Energy Intake
- Feeding Behavior
- Food Preferences
- Humans
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/metabolism
- Ligands
- Melanocortins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mutation
- Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
- Obesity/genetics
- Obesity/metabolism
- Obesity/physiopathology
- Pro-Opiomelanocortin/genetics
- Pro-Opiomelanocortin/metabolism
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 3/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 3/metabolism
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/drug effects
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- R A H Adan
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology and Anatomy, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Perimenis P, Giannitsas K. Existing and future pharmacotherapy for erectile dysfunction. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2006. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.16.9.1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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14
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Grosse J, Tarnow P, Römpler H, Schneider B, Sedlmeier R, Huffstadt U, Korthaus D, Nehls M, Wattler S, Schöneberg T, Biebermann H, Augustin M. N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-based generation of mouse models for mutant G protein-coupled receptors. Physiol Genomics 2006; 26:209-17. [PMID: 16720677 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00289.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical random mutagenesis techniques with the germ line supermutagen N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) have been established to provide comprehensive collections of mouse models, which were then mined and analyzed in phenotype-driven studies. Here, we applied ENU mutagenesis in a high-throughput fashion for a gene-driven identification of new mutations. Selected members of the large superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), melanocortin type 3 (Mc3r) and type 4 (Mc4r) receptors, and the orphan chemoattractant receptor GPR33, were used as model targets to prove the feasibility of this approach. Parallel archives of DNA and sperm from mice mutagenized with ENU were screened for mutations in these GPCR, and in vitro assays served as a preselection step before in vitro fertilization was performed to generate the appropriate mouse model. For example, mouse models for inherited obesity were established by selecting fully or partially inactivating mutations in Mc4r. Our technology described herein has the potential to provide mouse models for a GPCR dysfunction of choice within <4 mo and can be extended to other gene classes of interest.
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MESH Headings
- Alkylating Agents/toxicity
- Animals
- COS Cells
- Chlorocebus aethiops
- DNA Mutational Analysis/methods
- Disease Models, Animal
- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
- Ethylnitrosourea/toxicity
- Female
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/genetics
- Green Fluorescent Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C3H
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Mutant Strains
- Mutagenesis/drug effects
- Mutation/genetics
- Phylogeny
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 3/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 3/physiology
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4/physiology
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/physiology
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Transfection
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