Melanocortin-4 receptor activation promotes insulin-stimulated mTOR signaling

Nutrigenomics at the Interface of Aging, Lifespan, and Cancer Prevention

The percentage of elderly people with associated age-related health deterioration, including cancer, has been increasing for decades. Among age-related diseases, the incidence of cancer has grown substantially, in part because of the overlap of some molecular pathways between cancer and aging. Studies with model organisms suggest that aging and age-related conditions are manipulable processes that can be modified by both genetic and environmental factors, including dietary habits. Variations in genetic backgrounds likely lead to differential responses to dietary changes and account for some of the inconsistencies found in the literature. The intricacies of the aging process, coupled with the interrelational role of bioactive food components on gene expression, make this review a complex undertaking. Nevertheless, intriguing evidence suggests that dietary habits can manipulate the aging process and/or its consequences and potentially may have unprecedented health benefits. The present review focuses on 4 cellular events: telomerase activity, bioenergetics, DNA repair, and oxidative stress. These processes are linked to both aging and cancer risk, and their alteration in animal models by selected food components is evident.

Insights into the Genetic Susceptibility to Type 2 Diabetes from Genome-Wide Association Studies of Obesity-Related Traits

Obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D) are common and complex metabolic diseases, which are caused by an interchange between environmental and genetic factors. Recently, a number of large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have improved our knowledge of the genetic architecture and biological mechanisms of these diseases. Currently, more than ~250 genetic loci have been found for monogenic, syndromic, or common forms of T2D and/or obesity-related traits. In this review, we discuss the implications of these GWAS for obesity and T2D, and investigate the overlap of loci for obesity-related traits and T2D, highlighting potential mechanisms that affect T2D susceptibility.

Astrocytes: new targets of melanocortin 4 receptor actions

Astrocytes exert a wide variety of functions with paramount importance in brain physiology. After injury or infection, astrocytes become reactive and they respond by producing a variety of inflammatory mediators that help maintain brain homeostasis. Loss of astrocyte functions as well as their excessive activation can contribute to disease processes; thus, it is important to modulate reactive astrocyte response. Melanocortins are peptides with well-recognized anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activity. Although melanocortin efficacy was shown in systemic models of inflammatory disease, mechanisms involved in their effects have not yet been fully elucidated. Central anti-inflammatory effects of melanocortins and their mechanisms are even less well known, and, in particular, the effects of melanocortins in glial cells are poorly understood. Of the five known melanocortin receptors (MCRs), only subtype 4 is present in astrocytes. MC4R has been shown to mediate melanocortin effects on energy homeostasis, reproduction, inflammation, and neuroprotection and, recently, to modulate astrocyte functions. In this review, we will describe MC4R involvement in anti-inflammatory, anorexigenic, and anti-apoptotic effects of melanocortins in the brain. We will highlight MC4R action in astrocytes and discuss their possible mechanisms of action. Melanocortin effects on astrocytes provide a new means of treating inflammation, obesity, and neurodegeneration, making them attractive targets for therapeutic interventions in the CNS.

Effects of leptin and melanocortin signaling interactions on pubertal development and reproduction

Leptin and melanocortin signaling control ingestive behavior, energy balance, and substrate utilization, but only leptin signaling defects cause hypothalamic hypogonadism and infertility. Although GnRH neurons do not express leptin receptors, leptin influences GnRH neuron activity via regulation of immediate downstream mediators including the neuropeptides neuropeptide Y and the melanocortin agonist and antagonist, α-MSH, agouti-related peptide, respectively. Here we show that modulation of melanocortin signaling in female db/db mice through ablation of agouti-related peptide, or heterozygosity of melanocortin 4 receptor, restores the timing of pubertal onset, fertility, and lactation. Additionally, melanocortin 4 receptor activation increases action potential firing and induces c-Fos expression in GnRH neurons, providing further evidence that melanocortin signaling influences GnRH neuron activity. These studies thus establish melanocortin signaling as an important component in the leptin-mediated regulation of GnRH neuron activity, initiation of puberty and fertility.

Melanocortin-induced PKA activation inhibits AMPK activity via ERK-1/2 and LKB-1 in hypothalamic GT1-7 cells

α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced activation of the melanocortin-4 receptor in hypothalamic neurons increases energy expenditure and inhibits food intake. Active hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has recently been reported to enhance food intake, and in vivo experiments suggested that intrahypothalamic injection of melanocortins decreased food intake due to the inhibition of AMPK activity. However, it is not clear whether α-MSH affects AMPK via direct intracellular signaling cascades or if the release of paracrine factors is involved. Here, we used a murine, hypothalamic cell line (GT1-7 cells) and monitored AMPK phosphorylation at Thr(172), which has been suggested to increase AMPK activity. We found that α-MSH dephosphorylated AMPK at Thr(172) and consequently decreased phosphorylation of the established AMPK substrate acetyl-coenzyme A-carboxylase at Ser(79). Inhibitory effects of α-MSH on AMPK were blocked by specific inhibitors of protein kinase A (PKA) or ERK-1/2, pointing to an important role of both kinases in this process. Because α-MSH-induced activation of ERK-1/2 was blunted by PKA inhibitors, we propose that ERK-1/2 serves as a link between PKA and AMPK in GT1-7 cells. Furthermore, down-regulation of liver kinase B-1, but not inhibition of calcium-calmodulin-dependent kinase kinase-β or TGFβ-activated kinase-1 decreased basal phosphorylation of AMPK and its dephosphorylation induced by α-MSH. Thus, we propose that α-MSH inhibits AMPK activity via a linear pathway, including PKA, ERK-1/2, and liver kinase B-1 in GT1-7 cells. Given the importance of the melanocortin system in the formation of adipositas, detailed knowledge about this pathway might help to develop drugs targeting obesity.

Bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP7) reverses obesity and regulates appetite through a central mTOR pathway

Body weight is regulated by coordinating energy intake and energy expenditure. Transforming growth factor β (TGFβ)/bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling has been shown to regulate energy balance in lower organisms, but whether a similar pathway exists in mammals is unknown. We have previously demonstrated that BMP7 can regulate brown adipogenesis and energy expenditure. In the current study, we have uncovered a novel role for BMP7 in appetite regulation. Systemic treatment of diet-induced obese mice with BMP7 resulted in increased energy expenditure and decreased food intake, leading to a significant reduction in body weight and improvement of metabolic syndrome. Similar degrees of weight loss with reduced appetite were also observed in BMP7-treated ob/ob mice, suggesting a leptin-independent mechanism utilized by BMP7. Intracerebroventricular administration of BMP7 to mice led to an acute decrease in food intake, which was mediated, at least in part, by a central rapamycin-sensitive mTOR-p70S6 kinase pathway. Together, these results underscore the importance of BMP7 in regulating both food intake and energy expenditure, and suggest new therapeutic approaches for obesity and its comorbidities.

Greater impact of melanocortin-4 receptor deficiency on rates of growth and risk of type 2 diabetes during childhood compared with adulthood in Pima Indians

Features of melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) deficiency have been observed to be more pronounced in childhood. Longitudinal data from a population-based study were used to separate the phenotypic effects of MC4R deficiency during childhood and adulthood. The MC4R exon was sequenced in 6,760 individuals of predominantly Pima Indian heritage, and discovered mutations were functionally assessed in vitro. Effects on BMI, height, and slope of BMI change were assessed during childhood (ages 5-20 years) and adulthood (ages 20-45 years). Six mutations affecting MC4R function, including three that may be private to Pima Indians, were found in 159 individuals (2.4%). The slope of BMI increase was greater in individuals carrying an MC4R mutation compared with noncarriers during childhood but not during adulthood. The final adult height obtained was higher in individuals with MC4R deficiency. There was an increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes in individuals with a defective MC4R during childhood and adulthood, but this was only independent of BMI in childhood. The greater rates of body mass accumulation and risk of type 2 diabetes before the age of 20 years in individuals with MC4R deficiency indicate that the effects of these mutations are more apparent during the active growth of childhood.