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GPR65 (TDAG8) inhibits intestinal inflammation and colitis-associated colorectal cancer development in experimental mouse models. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2022; 1868:166288. [PMID: 34628032 PMCID: PMC8629932 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2021.166288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
GPR65 (TDAG8) is a proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptor predominantly expressed in immune cells. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified GPR65 gene polymorphisms as an emerging risk factor for the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Patients with IBD have an elevated risk of developing colorectal cancer when compared to the general population. To study the role of GPR65 in intestinal inflammation and colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC), colitis and CAC were induced in GPR65 knockout (KO) and wild-type (WT) mice using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) and azoxymethane (AOM)/DSS, respectively. Disease severity parameters such as fecal score, colon shortening, histopathology, and mesenteric lymph node enlargement were aggravated in GPR65 KO mice compared to WT mice treated with DSS. Elevated leukocyte infiltration and fibrosis were observed in the inflamed colon of GPR65 KO when compared to WT mice which may represent a cellular mechanism for the observed exacerbation of intestinal inflammation. In line with high expression of GPR65 in infiltrated leukocytes, GPR65 gene expression was increased in inflamed intestinal tissue samples of IBD patients compared to normal intestinal tissues. Moreover, colitis-associated colorectal cancer development was higher in GPR65 KO mice than WT mice when treated with AOM/DSS. Altogether, our data demonstrate that GPR65 suppresses intestinal inflammation and colitis-associated tumor development in murine colitis and CAC models, suggesting potentiation of GPR65 with agonists may have an anti-inflammatory therapeutic effect in IBD and reduce the risk of developing colitis-associated colorectal cancer.
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2
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Liu F, Li D, Wang X, Cui Y, Li X. Polyphenols intervention is an effective strategy to ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2020; 72:14-25. [PMID: 32369394 DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2020.1760220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Whether polyphenols could ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is still conflicting. To explore the efficacy of polyphenols as an adjuvant therapy for IBD, we conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis. Literature search was performed using PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Cochrane databases. Finally, 12 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included. In contrast to control group, curcumin treatment significantly improved clinical remission in intention-to-treat (ITT) (OR = 3.36, 95% CI: 1.09-10.37) and per-protocol (PP) analysis (OR = 5.13, 95% CI: 1.84-14.27). Meanwhile, curcumin could significantly ameliorate endoscopic remission (OR = 5.69, 95% CI: 1.28-25.27) and clinical response (OR = 4.69, 95% CI: 1.03-21.47) in PP analysis. Heterogeneity was present across the studies. In conclusions, polyphenols might be an effective adjuvant treatment for ameliorating IBD. Considering the relatively few studies included in our present study, further clinical trials are required to verify the effects of polyphenols on IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Liu
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Deming Li
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xinjing Wang
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuan Cui
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xinli Li
- School of Public Health, Medical College of Soochow University, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Preventive and Translational Medicine for Geriatric Diseases, School of Public Health, Soochow University, Suzhou, PR China
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Yeshi K, Ruscher R, Hunter L, Daly NL, Loukas A, Wangchuk P. Revisiting Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Pathology, Treatments, Challenges and Emerging Therapeutics Including Drug Leads from Natural Products. J Clin Med 2020; 9:E1273. [PMID: 32354192 PMCID: PMC7288008 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9051273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic and life-long disease characterized by gastrointestinal tract inflammation. It is caused by the interplay of the host's genetic predisposition and immune responses, and various environmental factors. Despite many treatment options, there is no cure for IBD. The increasing incidence and prevalence of IBD and lack of effective long-term treatment options have resulted in a substantial economic burden to the healthcare system worldwide. Biologics targeting inflammatory cytokines initiated a shift from symptomatic control towards objective treatment goals such as mucosal healing. There are seven monoclonal antibody therapies excluding their biosimilars approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for induction and maintenance of clinical remission in IBD. Adverse side effects associated with almost all currently available drugs, especially biologics, is the main challenge in IBD management. Natural products have significant potential as therapeutic agents with an increasing role in health care. Given that natural products display great structural diversity and are relatively easy to modify chemically, they represent ideal scaffolds upon which to generate novel therapeutics. This review focuses on the pathology, currently available treatment options for IBD and associated challenges, and the roles played by natural products in health care. It discusses these natural products within the current biodiscovery research agenda, including the applications of drug discovery techniques and the search for next-generation drugs to treat a plethora of inflammatory diseases, with a major focus on IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karma Yeshi
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Roland Ruscher
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Luke Hunter
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Norelle L. Daly
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Alex Loukas
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Phurpa Wangchuk
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns QLD 4878, Australia
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Hosseini A, Gharibi T, Marofi F, Babaloo Z, Baradaran B. CTLA-4: From mechanism to autoimmune therapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 80:106221. [PMID: 32007707 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.106221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
CD28 and CTLA-4 are both important stimulatory receptors for the regulation of T cell activation. Because receptors share common ligands, B7.1 and B7.2, the expression and biological function of CTLA-4 is important for the negative regulation of T cell responses. Therefore, elimination of CTLA-4 can result in the breakdown of immune tolerance and the development of several diseases such as autoimmunity. Inhibitory signals of CTLA-4 suppress T cell responses and protect against autoimmune diseases in many ways. In this review, we summarize the structure, expression and signaling pathway of CTLA-4. We also highlight how CTLA-4 defends against potentially self-reactive T cells. Finally, we discuss how the CTLA-4 regulates a number of autoimmune diseases that indicate manipulation of this inhibitory molecule is a promise as a strategy for the immunotherapy of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arezoo Hosseini
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Aging Research Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Tohid Gharibi
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Aging Research Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Faroogh Marofi
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zohreh Babaloo
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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5
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Pharmacological inhibition of GPR4 remediates intestinal inflammation in a mouse colitis model. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 852:218-230. [PMID: 30930250 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by chronic, recurring inflammation of the digestive tract. Current therapeutic approaches are limited and include biologics and steroids such as anti-TNFα monoclonal antibodies and corticosteroids, respectively. Significant adverse drug effects can occur for chronic usage and include increased risk of infection in some patients. GPR4, a pH-sensing G protein-coupled receptor, has recently emerged as a potential therapeutic target for intestinal inflammation. We have assessed the effects of a GPR4 antagonist, 2-(4-((2-Ethyl-5,7-dimethylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl)methyl)phenyl)-5-(piperidin-4-yl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole (GPR4 antagonist 13, also known as NE-52-QQ57) in the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute colitis mouse model. The GPR4 antagonist 13 inhibited intestinal inflammation. The clinical parameters such as body weight loss and fecal score were reduced in the GPR4 antagonist 13 treatment group compared to vehicle control. Macroscopic disease indicators such as colon shortening, splenic expansion, and mesenteric lymph node enlargement were all reduced in severity in the GPR4 antagonist 13 treated mice. Histopathological features of active colitis were alleviated in GPR4 antagonist 13 treatment groups compared to vehicle control. Finally, inflammatory gene expression in the colon tissues and vascular adhesion molecule expression in the intestinal endothelia were attenuated by GPR4 antagonist 13. Our results indicate that GPR4 antagonist 13 provides a protective effect in the DSS-induced acute colitis mouse model, and inhibition of GPR4 can be explored as a novel anti-inflammatory approach.
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Tang WJ, Peng KY, Tang ZF, Wang YH, Xue AJ, Huang Y. MicroRNA-15a - cell division cycle 42 signaling pathway in pathogenesis of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. World J Gastroenterol 2018; 24:5234-5245. [PMID: 30581272 PMCID: PMC6295831 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v24.i46.5234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To determine whether cell division cycle (Cdc)42 is regulated by microRNA (miR)-15a in the development of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
METHODS We cultured 293T cells, used plasmids and performed dual-luciferase assay to determine whether Cdc42 is a miR-15a target gene. We cultured Caco-2 cells, and stimulated them with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. We then employed lentiviruses to alter the expression of miR-15a and Cdc42. We performed quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunofluorescence to determine whether Cdc42 is regulated by miR-15a in Caco-2 cells. Finally, we collected ileocecal tissue by endoscopy from patients and performed qRT-PCR to examine the expression of miR-15a and Cdc42 in pediatric IBD patients.
RESULTS Target Scan and dual-luciferase assay revealed that Cdc42 was a miR-15a target gene. MiR-15a expression increased (P = 0.0038) and Cdc42 expression decreased (P = 0.0013) in cells stimulated with TNF-α, and the expression of the epithelial junction proteins zona occludens (ZO)-1 (P < 0.05) and E-cadherin (P < 0.001) decreased. Cdc42 levels decreased in miR-15a-mimic cells (P < 0.001) and increased in miR-15a inhibitor cells (P < 0.05). ZO-1 and E-cadherin decreased in miR-15a-mimic cells (P < 0.001) but not in the miR-15a inhibitor + TNF-α cells. In Lv-Cdc42 + TNF-α cells, ZO-1 and E-cadherin expression increased compared to the Lv-Cdc42-NC + TNF-α (P < 0.05) or miR-15a-mimic cells (P < 0.05). Fifty-four pediatric IBD patients were included in this study, 21 in the control group, 19 in the Crohn’s disease (CD) active (AC) group, seven in the CD remission (RE) group, and seven in the ulcerative colitis (UC) group. MiR-15a increased and Cdc42 decreased in the CD AC group compared to the control group (P < 0.05). miR-15a decreased and Cdc42 increased in the CD RE group compared to the CD AC group (P < 0.05). miR-15a was positively correlated with the Pediatric Crohn’s disease Activity Index (PCDAI) (P = 0.006), while Cdc42 was negatively correlated with PCDAI (P = 0.0008). Finally, miR-15a expression negatively correlated with Cdc42 in pediatric IBD patients (P = 0.0045).
CONCLUSION MiR-15a negatively regulates epithelial junctions through Cdc42 in Caco-2 cells and pediatric IBD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Juan Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
| | - Kai-Yue Peng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
| | - Zi-Fei Tang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
| | - Yu-Huan Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
| | - Ai-Juan Xue
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
| | - Ying Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Children’s Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai 201102, China
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Hanyang L, Xuanzhe L, Xuyang C, Yujia Q, Jiarong F, Jun S, Zhihua R. Application of Zebrafish Models in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Front Immunol 2017; 8:501. [PMID: 28515725 PMCID: PMC5413514 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic, recurrent, and remitting inflammatory disease with unclear etiology. As a clinically frequent disease, it can affect individuals throughout their lives, with multiple complications. Unfortunately, traditional murine models are not efficient for the further study of IBD. Thus, effective and convenient animal models are needed. Zebrafish have been used as model organisms to investigate IBD because of their suggested highly genetic similarity to humans and their superiority as laboratory models. The zebrafish model has been used to study the composition of intestinal microbiota, novel genes, and therapeutic approaches. The pathogenesis of IBD is still unclear and many risk factors remain unidentified. In this review, we compare traditional murine models and zebrafish models in terms of advantages, pathogenesis, and drug discovery screening for IBD. We also review the progress and deficiencies of the zebrafish model for scientific applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Hanyang
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Liu Xuanzhe
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Xuyang
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiu Yujia
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Fu Jiarong
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Shen Jun
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Ran Zhihua
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Ministry of Health, Inflammatory Bowel Disease Research Center, Shanghai, China.,Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Institute of Digestive Disease, Shanghai, China
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Loganes C, Pin A, Naviglio S, Girardelli M, Bianco AM, Martelossi S, Tommasini A, Piscianz E. Altered pattern of tumor necrosis factor-alpha production in peripheral blood monocytes from Crohn's disease. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:9117-9126. [PMID: 27895399 PMCID: PMC5107593 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i41.9117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To evaluate the inflammatory state in Crohn’s disease (CD) patients and correlate it with genetic background and microbial spreading.
METHODS By means of flow cytometry, production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) was measured in peripheral blood monocytes from patients suffering from CD, ulcerative colitis (UC) and in healthy subjects after stimulation of the NOD2 and TLR pathways. CD patients were genotyped for the three most common NOD2 variants (R702W, G908R and L1007Pfs*2) and basal production of TNF-α was correlated to NOD2 genotype. Also, production of TNF-α was correlated to plasmatic levels of LPS Binding Protein (LBP), soluble (s) CD14 and to the activity state of the disease.
RESULTS The patients with CD were characterized by a significantly higher monocyte basal expression of TNF-α compared with healthy subjects and UC patients, and after stimulation with Pam3CSK4 (ligand of TLR2/1) and MDP-L18 (ligand of NOD2) this difference was maintained, while other microbial stimuli (LPS, ligand of TLR4 and PolyI:C, ligand of TLR3) induced massive activation in CD monocytes as well as in UC and in healthy control cells. There was no significant difference in the production of TNF-α between patients who carried CD-associated heterozygous or homozygous variants in NOD2 and patients with wild type NOD2 genotype. Although serum LBP levels have been shown to correlate positively with the state of activity of the disease, TNF-α production did not show a clear correlation with either LBP or sCD14 levels in plasma. Moreover, no clear correlation was seen between TNF-α production and activity indices in either CD or UC.
CONCLUSION Peripheral monocytes from CD express higher basal and stimulated TNF-α than controls, regardless of NOD2 genotype and without a clear correlation with disease activity.
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Ameliorating Active Ulcerative Colitis via an Orally Available Toll-Like Receptor-9 Modifier: A Prospective Open-Label, Multicenter Phase II Trial. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61:3246-3254. [PMID: 27572942 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-016-4276-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treatment of active ulcerative colitis is associated with incomplete efficacy, adverse events, and loss of response. Toll-like receptor-9 mediates innate and adaptive immune response toward intestinal microorganisms. The oral synthetic oligonucleotide toll-like receptor-9 modulator has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties in colitis murine models and a satisfactory safety profile in humans. AIM To evaluate the efficacy and safety of BL-7040 (a Toll-like receptor-9 modulator) in patients with moderately active ulcerative colitis. METHODS Moderately active ulcerative colitis patients were included in this multicenter, open-label phase IIa trial. Concomitant mesalamine and steroids at a stable dose were allowed. Clinical outcome was evaluated using the Mayo score, histology, and mucosal cytokine levels. Side effects were registered. RESULTS Sixteen out of 22 patients completed a 5-week treatment course and 2-week follow-up. Six patients discontinued the study, three of them due to adverse events. Clinical remission was observed in two patients (12.5 %), and clinical response as well as mucosal healing were achieved in half (50 %) of the patients, while all others remained stable. Furthermore, mucosal neutrophil (p = 0.002) and mucosal interleukin-6 levels (p = 0.046) were significantly reduced in responders compared to non-responders. Toll-like receptor-9 was well tolerated with only one unrelated to study drug serious adverse event (hemoglobin decrease) and 29 mild-to-moderate adverse events. CONCLUSIONS Oral administration of the Toll-like receptor-9 agonist BL-7040 appeared efficacious, safe and well tolerated in patients with moderately active ulcerative colitis.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) reflect the cooperative influence of numerous host and environmental factors, including those of elements of the intestinal immune system, the gut microbiota, and dietary habits. This review focuses on features of the gut microbiota and mucosal immune system that are important in the development and control of IBDs. RECENT FINDINGS Gut innate-type immune cells, including dendritic cells, innate lymphoid cells, and mast cells, educate acquired-type immune cells and intestinal epithelial cells to achieve a symbiotic relationship with commensal bacteria. However, perturbation of the number or type of commensal microorganisms and endogenous genetic polymorphisms that affect immune responses and epithelial barrier system can ultimately lead to IBDs. Providing beneficial bacteria or fecal microbiota transplants helps to reestablish the intestinal environment, maintain its homeostasis, and ameliorate IBDs. SUMMARY The gut immune system participates in a symbiotic milieu that includes cohabiting commensal bacteria. However, dysbiotic conditions and aberrations in the epithelial barrier and gut immune system can disrupt the mutualistic relationship between the host and gut microbiota, leading to IBDs. Progress in our molecular and cellular understanding of this relationship has yielded numerous insights regarding clinical applications for the treatment of IBDs.
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