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Khir NAM, Noh ASM, Long I, Zakaria R, Ismail CAN. Recent progress on anti-nociceptive effects of carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2). Mol Cell Biochem 2024; 479:539-552. [PMID: 37106243 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-023-04749-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
The role of carbon monoxide (CO) has evolved albeit controversial disputes on its toxicity. This biological gasotransmitter participates in the endogenous regulation of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides released in the nervous system. Exogenous CO gas inhalation at a lower concentration has been the subject of investigations, which have revealed its biological homeostatic mechanisms and protective effects against many pathological conditions. This therapeutic procedure of CO is, however, limited due to its immediate release, which favours haemoglobin at a high affinity with the subsequent generation of toxic carboxyhaemoglobin in tissues. In order to address this problem, carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) or also known as tricarbonyldichlororuthenium II dimer is developed to liberate a controlled amount of CO in the biological systems. In this review, we examine several potential mechanisms exerted by this therapeutic compound to produce the anti-nociceptive effect that has been demonstrated in previous studies. This review could shed light on the role of CORM-2 to reduce pain, especially in cases of chronic and neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Ajilah Mohamed Khir
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- International Medical School, Management and Science University, 40100, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ain' Sabreena Mohd Noh
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Idris Long
- Biomedicine Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Rahimah Zakaria
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Che Aishah Nazariah Ismail
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia.
- Brain and Behaviour Cluster, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia.
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2
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Nielsen VG. Novel Toxicodynamic Model of Subcutaneous Envenomation to Characterize Snake Venom Coagulopathies and Assess the Efficacy of Site-Directed Inorganic Antivenoms. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13939. [PMID: 37762243 PMCID: PMC10530349 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241813939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous snake bite adversely affects millions of people yearly, but few animal models allow for the determination of toxicodynamic timelines with hemotoxic venoms to characterize the onset and severity of coagulopathy or assess novel, site-directed antivenom strategies. Thus, the goals of this investigation were to create a rabbit model of subcutaneous envenomation to assess venom toxicodynamics and efficacy of ruthenium-based antivenom administration. New Zealand White rabbits were sedated with midazolam via the ear vein and had viscoelastic measurements of whole blood and/or plasmatic coagulation kinetics obtained from ear artery samples. Venoms derived from Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus, Bothrops moojeni, or Calloselasma rhodostoma were injected subcutaneously, and changes in coagulation were determined over three hours and compared to samples obtained prior to envenomation. Other rabbits had ruthenium-based antivenoms injected five minutes after venom injection. Viscoelastic analyses demonstrated diverse toxicodynamic patterns of coagulopathy consistent with the molecular composition of the proteomes of the venoms tested. The antivenoms tested attenuated venom-mediated coagulopathy. A novel rabbit model can be used to characterize the onset and severity of envenomation by diverse proteomes and to assess site-directed antivenoms. Future investigation is planned involving other medically important venoms and antivenom development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vance G Nielsen
- Department of Anesthesiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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3
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Cazuza RA, Batallé G, Bai X, Leite-Panissi CRA, Pol O. Effects of treatment with a carbon monoxide donor and an activator of heme oxygenase 1 on the nociceptive, apoptotic and/or oxidative alterations induced by persistent inflammatory pain in the central nervous system of mice. Brain Res Bull 2022; 188:169-178. [PMID: 35952846 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The activation of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1)/carbon monoxide (CO) inhibits chronic inflammatory pain, but its role in the central nervous system (CNS) is not entirely known. We evaluated whether the treatment with an HO-1 inducer, cobalt protoporphyrin IX (CoPP), or a CO-releasing molecule, tricarbonyldichlororuthenium(II)dimer (CORM-2), modulates the nociceptive, apoptotic and/or oxidative responses provoked by persistent inflammatory pain in the CNS. In C57BL/6 male mice with peripheral inflammation caused by complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), we assessed the effects of CORM-2 and CoPP on the expression of protein kinase B (Akt), the apoptotic protein BAX, and the antioxidant enzymes HO-1 and NADPH quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) in the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), amygdala (AMG), ventral hippocampus (VHPC) and medial septal area (MSA). Our results showed that the increased expression of p-Akt caused by peripheral inflammation in the four analyzed brain areas was reversed by CORM-2 and CoPP therapies. Both treatments also normalized the upregulation of BAX induced by CFA on the VHPC and MSA. Oxidative stress, demonstrated with the decreased expression of HO-1 on the PAG and AMG, was normalized in CORM-2 and CoPP treated animals. CoPP also increased the expression of HO-1 on VHPC, and both treatments up-regulated the NQO1 levels on the PAG of CFA-injected animals. In conclusion, both CORM-2 and CoPP treatments inhibited the nociceptive and apoptotic responses generated by peripheral inflammation and/or potentiated the antioxidant responses in several brain areas revealing the new modulatory effects of these treatments in the CNS of animals with chronic inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael A Cazuza
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy Science and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, SP, Brazil
| | - Gerard Batallé
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xue Bai
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Christie R A Leite-Panissi
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy Science and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, SP, Brazil.
| | - Olga Pol
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Sant Quintí 77-79, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain.
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Baskin V, Eroglu E, Harmanci N, Erol K. Antinociceptive, anxiolytic, and depression‐like effects of hydrogen sulfide, nitric oxide, and carbon monoxide in rats and the role of opioidergic and serotonergic systems in antinociceptive activity. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2022; 36:674-686. [DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Veysel Baskin
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Eskişehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir Turkey
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Hitit University Corum Turkey
| | - Ezgi Eroglu
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Eskişehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir Turkey
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology Lokman Hekim University Ankara Turkey
| | - Nusin Harmanci
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Eskişehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir Turkey
| | - Kevser Erol
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Eskişehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir Turkey
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Pharmacology Bahçeşehir University Istanbul Turkey
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5
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Meroney M, Winegar J, Brown H, Bender M, Smith S, Przkora R. Modulatory Effects of Stem Cells on Opioid Receptors and Neuroinflammation. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2022; 26:121-127. [DOI: 10.1007/s11916-022-01013-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Khir NAM, Noh ASM, Shafin N, Ismail CAN. Contribution of P2X4 receptor in pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis: a review. Purinergic Signal 2021; 17:201-213. [PMID: 33594635 PMCID: PMC8155137 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-021-09764-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain is the most common symptom reported by patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) even after the resolution of chronic joint inflammation. It is believed that RA-associated pain is not solely due to inflammation, but could also be attributed to aberrant modifications to the central nervous system. The P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) is an ATP-activated purinergic receptor that plays a significant role in the transmission of information in the nervous system and pain. The involvement of P2X4R during the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory pain and neuropathic pain is well-established. The attenuation of this receptor alleviates disease pathogenesis and related symptoms, including hyperalgesia and allodynia. Although some studies have revealed the contribution of P2X4R in promoting joint inflammation in RA, how it implicates pain associated with RA at peripheral and central nervous systems is still lacking. In this review, the possible contributions of P2X4R in the nervous system and how it implicates pain transmission and responses were examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Ajilah Mohamed Khir
- International Medical School, Management and Science University, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Ain’ Sabreena Mohd Noh
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Nazlahshaniza Shafin
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Che Aishah Nazariah Ismail
- Department of Physiology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
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HO-CO pathway activation may be associated with hippocampal μ and δ opioid receptors in inhibiting inflammatory pain aversiveness and nociception in WT but not NOS2-KO mice. Brain Res Bull 2021; 169:8-17. [PMID: 33422660 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO) modulate inflammatory nociception and anxiety. We evaluate whether treatments with a heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inducer (CoPP) or a carbon monoxide-releasing molecule (CORM-2) are capable of inhibiting inflammatory pain aversiveness in wild type (WT) and inducible nitric oxide synthase-knock out (NOS2-KO) mice with persistent inflammation and its relationship with μ- (MOR) and δ- (DOR) opioid receptors. WT and NOS2-KO male mice with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) injected into the hind paw were evaluated in the von Frey and the escape-avoidance paradigm (PEAP) tests, at 10 days, before and after the treatment with CORM-2 (5 mg/kg) or CoPP (2.5 mg/kg). WT mice groups treated with CORM-2 or CoPP also received naloxone (NLX, a non-specific opioid receptor antagonist). The HO-1, neuronal nitric oxide synthase, NOS2, MOR, and DOR expression in the dorsal hippocampus were evaluated by western blot. CFA reduced mechanical threshold in WT and NOS2-KO mice but only increased the percentage of time in the light compartment in the PEAP in WT mice. CORM-2 and CoPP inhibited these effects in both strains. Pre-treatment with NLX reverses the anti-allodynic and anti-aversive effects of CORM-2 or CoPP in WT mice. CORM-2 and CoPP increases the protein levels of HO-1, MOR and DOR in the dorsal hippocampus of WT mice but not in NOS2-KO animals. Results showed that HOCO pathway activation promotes anti-allodynic effects and reduced pain aversiveness caused by peripheral inflammation by increasing the expression of MOR and DOR activated by HO-1 in the dorsal hippocampus.
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Redondo A, Riego G, Pol O. The Antinociceptive, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of 5-Fluoro-2-Oxindole during Inflammatory Pain. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9121249. [PMID: 33316895 PMCID: PMC7763029 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9121249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies demonstrate that 5-fluoro-2-oxindole inhibits neuropathic pain but the antinociceptive actions of this drug and its effects on the plasticity, oxidative and inflammatory changes induced by peripheral inflammation as well as on the effects and expression of µ-opioid receptors (MOR) have not been evaluated. In C57BL/6 male mice with inflammatory pain provoked by the subplantar administration of complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA), we evaluated: (1) the antinociceptive actions of 5-fluoro-2-oxindole and its reversion with the HO-1 inhibitor, tin protoporphyrin IX (SnPP); (2) the effects of 5-fluoro-2-oxindole in the protein levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Nrf2, NADPH quinone oxidoreductase1 (NQO1), heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), oxidative stress marker (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal; 4-HNE), inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2), microglial markers (CD11b/c and IBA-1), and MOR in the spinal cord and/or paw of animals with inflammatory pain; (3) the antinociceptive effects of morphine in 5-fluoro-2-oxindole pre-treated animals. Treatment with 5 and 10 mg/kg of 5-fluoro-2-oxindole inhibited the allodynia and hyperalgesia induced by CFA in a different, time-dependent manner. These effects were reversed by SnPP. Treatment with 5-fluoro-2-oxindole increased the expression of NQO1, HO-1 and MOR and inhibited the CFA-induced upregulation of phosphorylated MAPK, 4-HNE, NOS2, CD11b/c and IBA-1 in spinal cords and/or paws. The local effects of morphine were improved with 5-fluoro-2-oxindole. This work reveals that 5-fluoro-2-oxindole inhibits the plasticity, oxidative and inflammatory responses provoked by peripheral inflammation and potentiates the antinociceptive effects of morphine. Thus, treatment with 5-fluoro-2-oxindole alone and/or combined with morphine are two remarkable new procedures for chronic inflammatory pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Redondo
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (A.R.); (G.R.)
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gabriela Riego
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (A.R.); (G.R.)
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Olga Pol
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain; (A.R.); (G.R.)
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-619-757-054
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9
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Pol O. The role of carbon monoxide, heme oxygenase 1, and the Nrf2 transcription factor in the modulation of chronic pain and their interactions with opioids and cannabinoids. Med Res Rev 2020; 41:136-155. [PMID: 32820550 DOI: 10.1002/med.21726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Chronic pain and its associated comorbidities are difficult to treat, even when the most potent analgesic compounds are used. Thus, research on new strategies to effectively relieve nociceptive and/or emotional disorders accompanying chronic pain is essential. Several studies have demonstrated the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of different carbon monoxide-releasing molecules (CO-RMs), inducible heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), and nuclear factor-2 erythroid factor-2 (Nrf2) transcription factor activators in several models of acute and chronic pain caused by inflammation, nerve injury or diabetes. More recently, the antidepressant and/or anxiolytic effects of several Nrf2 transcription factor inducers were demonstrated in a model of chronic neuropathic pain. These effects are mainly produced by inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation, glial activation, mitogen-activated protein kinases and/or phosphoinositide 3-kinase/phospho-protein kinase B phosphorylation in the peripheral and/or central nervous system. Other studies also demonstrated that the analgesic effects of opioids and cannabinoids are improved when these drugs are coadministered with CO-RMs, HO-1 or Nrf2 activators in different preclinical pain models and that these improvements are generally mediated by upregulation or prevention of the downregulation of µ-opioid receptors, δ-opioid receptors and/or cannabinoid 2 receptors in the setting of chronic pain. We reviewed all these studies as well as studies on the mechanisms of action underlying the effects of CO-RMs, HO-1, and Nrf2 activators in chronic pain. In summary, activation of the Nrf2/HO-1/carbon monoxide signaling pathway alone and/or in combination with the administration of specific analgesics is a valid strategy for the treatment of chronic pain and some associated emotional disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Pol
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
- Grup de Neurofarmacologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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10
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Heme attenuates beta-endorphin levels in leukocytes of HIV positive individuals with chronic widespread pain. Redox Biol 2020; 36:101684. [PMID: 32828015 PMCID: PMC7451624 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of chronic widespread pain (CWP) in people with HIV is high, yet the underlying mechanisms are elusive. Leukocytes synthesize the endogenous opioid, β-endorphin, within their endoplasmic reticulum (ER). When released into plasma, β-endorphin dampens nociception by binding to opioid receptors on sensory neurons. We hypothesized that the heme-dependent redox signaling induces ER stress, which attenuates leukocyte β-endorphins levels/release, thereby increasing pain sensitivity in people with HIV. Results demonstrated that HIV positive individuals with CWP had increased plasma methemoglobin, erythrocytes membrane oxidation, hemolysis, and low plasma heme scavenging enzyme, hemopexin, compared to people with HIV without CWP and HIV-negative individuals with or without pain. In addition, the leukocytes from people with HIV with CWP had attenuated levels of the heme metabolizing enzyme, heme oxygenase-1, which metabolizes free heme to carbon-monoxide and biliverdin. These individuals also had elevated ER stress, and low β-endorphin in leukocytes. In vitro, heme exposure or heme oxygenase-1 deletion, decreased β-endorphins in murine monocytes/macrophages. Treating cells with a carbon-monoxide donor or an ER stress inhibitor, increased β-endorphins. To mimic hemolytic effects in a preclinical model, C57BL/6 mice were injected with phenylhydrazine hydrochloride (PHZ). PHZ increased cell-free heme and ER stress, decreased leukocyte β-endorphin levels and hindpaw mechanical sensitivity thresholds. Treatment of PHZ-injected mice with hemopexin blocked these effects, suggesting that heme-induced ER stress and a subsequent decrease in leukocyte β-endorphin is responsible for hypersensitivity in people with HIV.
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Zhang WJ, Luo HL, Zhu ZM. The role of P2X4 receptors in chronic pain: A potential pharmacological target. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 129:110447. [PMID: 32887026 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain is a common symptom of most clinical diseases, which seriously affects the psychosomatic health of patients and brings some pain to patients. Due to its pathological mechanism is very complicated and the treatment of chronic pain has always been a difficult problem in clinical. Normally, drugs are usually used to relieve pain, but the analgesic effect is not good, especially for cancer pain patients, the analgesic effect is poor. Therefore, exploring the pathogenesis and treatment of chronic pain has aroused the interest of many researchers. A large number of studies have shown that the role of ATP and P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) play an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic pain. P2X4R is dependent on ATP ligand-gated ion channel receptor, which can be activated by ATP and plays an important role in the information transmission of nerve system and the formation of pain. Therefore, in this paper, we comprehensively described the structure and biological functions of P2X4R, and outlined behavioral evaluation methods of chronic pain models. Moreover, we also explored the inherent relationship between P2X4R and chronic pain, and described the therapeutic effect of P2X4R antagonist on chronic pain, and provided some valuable help for the treatment of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Jun Zhang
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, 343000, China.
| | - Hong-Liang Luo
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, 343000, China.
| | - Zheng-Ming Zhu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, 343000, China.
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12
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Zhang WJ, Zhu ZM, Liu ZX. The role of P2X4 receptor in neuropathic pain and its pharmacological properties. Pharmacol Res 2020; 158:104875. [PMID: 32407956 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain (NPP) is a common symptom of most diseases in clinic, which seriously affects the mental health of patients and brings certain pain to patients. Due to its pathological mechanism is very complicated, and thus, its treatment has been one of the challenges in the field of medicine. Therefore, exploring the pathogenesis and treatment approach of NPP has aroused the interest of many researchers. ATP is an important energy information substance, which participates in the signal transmission in the body. The P2 × 4 receptor (P2 × 4R) is dependent on ATP ligand-gated cationic channel receptor, which can be activated by ATP and plays an important role in the transmission of information in the nervous system and the formation of pain. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the structure and function of the P2 × 4R gene. We also discuss the pathogenesis of NPP and the intrinsic relationship between P2 × 4R and NPP. Moreover, we explore the pharmacological properties of P2 × 4R antagonists or inhibitors used as targeted therapies for NPP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Jun Zhang
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China.
| | - Zheng-Ming Zhu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China.
| | - Zeng-Xu Liu
- Basic Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang City, Jiangxi province, 343000, China
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13
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Johnson TE, Wells RJ, Bell A, Nielsen VG, Olver CS. Carbon monoxide releasing molecule enhances coagulation and decreases fibrinolysis in canine plasma exposed to Crotalus viridis venom in vitro and in vivo. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2019; 125:328-336. [PMID: 31059181 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2), an emerging therapeutic in human medicine, enhances plasmatic coagulation and attenuates fibrinolysis in vitro in human, rabbit and horse plasma and ameliorates hypocoagulation and hyperfibrinolysis secondary to venom exposure in human plasma in vitro. Fibrinogenases in rattlesnake venom cause decreased clot strength, and in the presence of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) in vitro, a markedly increased rate of clot lysis. CO interacts with a haem group on fibrinogen, changing its configuration so that the fibrin clot is strengthened and more resistant to fibrinolysis. We hypothesized that CORM-2 enhances coagulation and attenuates fibrinolysis in canine plasma exposed to C viridis venom. We measured the effects of C viridis venom on clot strength, rates of coagulation and fibrinolysis in both pooled canine plasma and plasma from individual naturally envenomed dogs, with and without CORM-2, using thromboelastography (TEG). We tested venom effects on coagulation using tissue factor (TF) activated TEG and on both coagulation and fibrinolysis using TF-activated TEG with added tPA. We found that 17.9 µg/mL of venom causes a mean 26.4% decrease in clot strength, a 61.8% decrease in maximum rate of thrombus generation, 75% faster clot lysis, a 226% increase in maximum rate of lysis and a 92% decrease in total clot life span (CLS). CORM-2 ameliorated these effects, increasing CLS in the presence of venom by 603%. Additionally, we showed that CORM-2 has similar effects in vitro on plasma from naturally envenomed dogs, showing promise as an adjunct therapy for snake envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler E Johnson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina
| | - Raegan J Wells
- Phoenix Veterinary Referral and Emergency, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Amy Bell
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, Massachusetts
| | - Vance G Nielsen
- Department of Anesthesia, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Christine S Olver
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
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Jurga AM, Rojewska E, Makuch W, Mika J. Lipopolysaccharide from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (TLR4 antagonist) attenuates hypersensitivity and modulates nociceptive factors. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2018; 56:275-286. [PMID: 29656686 PMCID: PMC6130482 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2018.1457061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that Toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR4 localized on microglia/macrophages, may play a significant role in nociception. OBJECTIVE We examine the role of TLR4 in a neuropathic pain model. Using behavioural/biochemical methods, we examined the influence of TLR4 antagonist on levels of hypersensitivity and nociceptive factors whose contribution to neuropathy development has been confirmed. MATERIALS AND METHODS Behavioural (von Frey's/cold plate) tests were performed with Wistar male rats after intrathecal administration of a TLR4 antagonist (LPS-RS ULTRAPURE (LPS-RSU), 20 μG: lipopolysaccharide from Rhodobacter sphaeroides, InvivoGen, San Diego, CA) 16 H and 1 h before chronic constriction injury (cci) to the sciatic nerve and then daily for 7 d. three groups were used: an intact group and two cci-exposed groups that received vehicle or LPS-RSU. tissue [spinal cord/dorsal root ganglia (DRG)] for western blot analysis was collected on day 7. RESULTS The pharmacological blockade of TLR4 diminished mechanical (from ca. 40% to 16% that in the INTACT group) and thermal (from ca. 51% to 32% that in the INTACT group) hypersensitivity despite the enhanced activation of IBA-1-positive cells in DRG. Moreover, LPS-RSU changed the ratio between IL-18/IL-18BP and MMP-9/TIMP-1 in favour of the increase of antinociceptive factors IL-18BP (25%-spinal; 96%-DRG) and TIMP-1 (15%-spinal; 50%-DRG) and additionally led to an increased IL-6 (40%-spinal; 161%-DRG), which is known to have analgesic properties in neuropathy. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide evidence that LPS-RSU influences pain through the expression of TLR4. TLR4 blockade has analgesic properties and restores the balance between nociceptive factors, which indicates its engagement in neuropathy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka M. Jurga
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ewelina Rojewska
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
- CONTACT Joanna MikaDepartment of Pain Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Str., 31343Krakow, Poland
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Heme oxygenase-1 inducer and carbon monoxide-releasing molecule enhance the effects of gabapentinoids by modulating glial activation during neuropathic pain in mice. Pain Rep 2018; 3:e677. [PMID: 30534628 PMCID: PMC6181470 DOI: 10.1097/pr9.0000000000000677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Neuropathic pain is one of the most difficult-to-treat symptoms. Although gabapentinoids are classified as first-line drugs, they have only modest efficacy. Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate whether treatment with the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inducer cobalt protoporphyrin IX (CoPP) or the carbon monoxide-releasing molecule tricarbonyldichlororuthenium (II) dimer (CORM-2) can enhance the antinociceptive effects produced by gabapentinoids in mice with neuropathic pain. Methods Neuropathic pain was induced by spared nerve injury (SNI) of the sciatic nerve. The mechanical threshold was tested using von Frey filaments. The expression of spinal HO-1, HO-2, the Ca2+ channel α2δ1 subunit, microglial markers, and M1 or M2 microglial markers was examined using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Results Treatment with CoPP or CORM-2 alleviated mechanical allodynia induced by SNI. CoPP or CORM-2 enhanced the antiallodynic effects of gabapentinoids (pregabalin or gabapentin) during SNI-induced mechanical allodynia. HO-1 inhibitor tin protoporphyrin IX (SnPP) prevented the antiallodynic effects of gabapentinoids (pregabalin or gabapentin) during SNI-induced mechanical allodynia. CoPP or CORM-2 increased HO-1 and Ca2+ channel α2δ1 subunit gene expression and the decreased gene expression of microglial markers, M1 microglial marker, or tumor necrosis factor in the ipsilateral spinal dorsal horn of mice with SNI. SnPP prevented HO-1 induction and glial inhibition, which were produced by gabapentinoids during SNI-induced mechanical allodynia. Conclusions This study suggests that HO-1 plays crucial roles in the antiallodynic effects of gabapentinoids. Gabapentinoids attenuate the glial activation induced by SNI and some of these effects are mediated by HO-1.
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Xu F, Yang J, Lu F, Liu R, Zheng J, Zhang J, Cui W, Wang C, Zhou W, Wang Q, Chen X, Chen J. Fast Green FCF Alleviates Pain Hypersensitivity and Down-Regulates the Levels of Spinal P2X4 Expression and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in a Rodent Inflammatory Pain Model. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:534. [PMID: 29875666 PMCID: PMC5974208 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fast Green FCF (FGF), a biocompatible dye, recently drew attention as a potential drug to treat amyloid-deposit diseases due to its effects against amyloid fibrillogenesis in vitro and a high degree of safety. However, its role in inflammatory pain is unknown. Our study aimed to investigate the effect of FGF in the inflammatory pain model induced by complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) and to identify the associated mechanisms. We found that systemic administration of FGF reversed mechanical and thermal pain hypersensitivity evoked by CFA in a dose-dependent manner. FGF treatment decreased purinergic spinal P2X4 expression in the spinal cord of CFA-inflamed mice. FGF also down-regulated spinal and peripheral pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)], but did not alter the spinal level of nerve growth factor (NGF) or brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In conclusion, our results suggest the potential of FGF for controlling the progress of inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Xu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Fan Lu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Rongjun Liu
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jinwei Zheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
| | - Junfang Zhang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Wei Cui
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Chuang Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Wenhua Zhou
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Qinwen Wang
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Xiaowei Chen
- Ningbo Key Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, The Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Junping Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, China
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17
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Donaghy D, Yoo S, Johnson T, Nielsen V, Olver C. Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule Enhances Coagulation and Decreases Fibrinolysis in Normal Canine Plasma. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2018; 123:257-262. [PMID: 29577635 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The dog is an important companion animal and also purpose-bred for research studies. Coagulopathies in dogs are common, although the availability of blood products for therapy is inconsistent throughout the profession. A pro-coagulant therapeutic that is readily available and easily stored would be useful for the treatment of coagulopathies. Tricarbonyldichlororuthenium (II) dimer [Carbon monoxide-releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2)] acts as a prothrombotic agent in plasma by increasing the velocity of clot formation and clot strength, and by decreasing the clot's vulnerability to fibrinolysis. We sought to test CORM-2's effect on coagulation and fibrinolysis in vitro in canine plasma using thromboelastography. Measures of the rate of clot formation and clot strength in plasma without CORM-2 were highly correlated with fibrinogen concentration. We found that CORM-2 significantly enhanced the rate of clot formation and clot strength and significantly reduced the rate of fibrinolysis and the clot lysis time. The per cent change in rate of clot formation and clot strength was not significantly correlated with fibrinogen concentration, indicating that CORM-2's pro-coagulant effect is not dependent on fibrinogen concentration. This study corroborates studies in other species that show that CORM-2 is pro-coagulant in plasma, and lays the groundwork for developing CORM-2 as a therapeutic agent for canine coagulopathies. Future studies will evaluate the effect of CORM-2 on whole blood both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon Donaghy
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Seung Yoo
- Seattle Veterinary Specialists, Kirkland, WA, USA
| | - Tyler Johnson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Vance Nielsen
- Department of Anesthesia, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Christine Olver
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Clinical Pathology Section, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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18
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-ninth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2016 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia, stress and social status, tolerance and dependence, learning and memory, eating and drinking, drug abuse and alcohol, sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology, mental illness and mood, seizures and neurologic disorders, electrical-related activity and neurophysiology, general activity and locomotion, gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions, cardiovascular responses, respiration and thermoregulation, and immunological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and CUNY Neuroscience Collaborative, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
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19
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Wang H, Sun X. Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-2 Inhibits Connexin 43-Hemichannel Activity in Spinal Cord Astrocytes to Attenuate Neuropathic Pain. J Mol Neurosci 2017; 63:58-69. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-017-0957-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Qiao L, Zhang N, Huang JL, Yang XQ. Carbon monoxide as a promising molecule to promote nerve regeneration after traumatic brain injury. Med Gas Res 2017; 7:45-47. [PMID: 28480031 PMCID: PMC5402346 DOI: 10.4103/2045-9912.202909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon monoxide (CO) is known as a toxic gas. Although there have been many studies on both toxic and protective effects of CO, most of these studies lack novelty, except for Eng H Lo team's study on the therapeutic effect of CO on brain injuries. In this commentary, we summarize the potential application value of CO in the treatment of some clinical diseases, especially its protective effect and nerve regeneration in brain injuries, hoping that our interest in CO could promote related clinical application studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Qiao
- Department of Anatomy, Center of Regenerative Medicine, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Naval Aviation, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jun-Long Huang
- Department of Naval Aviation, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiang-Qun Yang
- Department of Anatomy, Center of Regenerative Medicine, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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Jurga AM, Piotrowska A, Makuch W, Przewlocka B, Mika J. Blockade of P2X4 Receptors Inhibits Neuropathic Pain-Related Behavior by Preventing MMP-9 Activation and, Consequently, Pronociceptive Interleukin Release in a Rat Model. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:48. [PMID: 28275350 PMCID: PMC5321202 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is still an extremely important problem in today's medicine because opioids, which are commonly used to reduce pain, have limited efficacy in this type of pathology. Therefore, complementary therapy is needed. Our experiments were performed in rats to evaluate the contribution of the purinergic system, especially P2X4 receptor (P2X4R), in the modulation of glia activation and, consequently, the levels of nociceptive interleukins after chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the right sciatic nerve, a rat model of neuropathic pain. Moreover, we studied how intrathecal (ith.) injection of a P2X4R antagonist Tricarbonyldichlororuthenium (II) dimer (CORM-2) modulates nociceptive transmission and opioid effectiveness in the CCI model. Our results demonstrate that repeated ith. administration of CORM-2 once daily (20 μg/5 μl, 16 and 1 h before CCI and then daily) for eight consecutive days significantly reduced pain-related behavior and activation of both spinal microglia and/or astroglia induced by CCI. Moreover, even a single administration of CORM-2 on day 7 after CCI attenuated mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity as efficiently as morphine and buprenorphine. In addition, using Western blot, we have shown that repeated ith. administration of CORM-2 lowers the CCI-elevated level of MMP-9 and pronociceptive interleukins (IL-1β, IL-18, IL-6) in the dorsal L4-L6 spinal cord and/or DRG. Furthermore, in parallel, CORM-2 upregulates spinal IL-1Ra; however, it does not influence other antinociceptive factors, IL-10 and IL-18BP. Additionally, based on our biochemical results, we hypothesize that p38MAPK, ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt but not the NLRP3/Caspase-1 pathway are partly involved in the CORM-2 analgesic effects in rat neuropathic pain. Our data provide new evidence that P2X4R may indeed play a significant role in neuropathic pain development by modulating neuroimmune interactions in the spinal cord and DRG, suggesting that its blockade may have potential therapeutic utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka M Jurga
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Piotrowska
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Makuch
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology Krakow, Poland
| | - Barbara Przewlocka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Mika
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology Krakow, Poland
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Popiolek-Barczyk K, Mika J. Targeting the Microglial Signaling Pathways: New Insights in the Modulation of Neuropathic Pain. Curr Med Chem 2016; 23:2908-2928. [PMID: 27281131 PMCID: PMC5427777 DOI: 10.2174/0929867323666160607120124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The microglia, once thought only to be supporting cells of the central nervous system (CNS), are now recognized to play essential roles in many pathologies. Many studies within the last decades indicated that the neuro-immune interaction underlies the generation and maintenance of neuropathic pain. Through a large number of receptors and signaling pathways, the microglial cells communicate with neurons, astrocytes and other cells, including those of the immune system. A disturbance or loss of CNS homeostasis causes rapid responses of the microglia, which undergo a multistage activation process. The activated microglia change their cell shapes and gene expression profiles, which induce proliferation, migration, and the production of pro- or antinociceptive factors. The cells release a large number of mediators that can act in a manner detrimental or beneficial to the surrounding cells and can indirectly alter the nociceptive signals. This review discusses the most important microglial intracellular signaling cascades (MAPKs, NF-kB, JAK/STAT, PI3K/Akt) that are essential for neuropathic pain development and maintenance. Our objective was to identify new molecular targets that may result in the development of powerful tools to control the signaling associated with neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joanna Mika
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pain Pharmacology, 12 Smetna Str., 31-343 Krakow, Poland.
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