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Lopes RM, Souza ACS, Otręba M, Rzepecka-Stojko A, Tersariol ILS, Rodrigues T. Targeting autophagy by antipsychotic phenothiazines: potential drug repurposing for cancer therapy. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 222:116075. [PMID: 38395266 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Cancer is recognized as the major cause of death worldwide and the most challenging public health issues. Tumor cells exhibit molecular adaptations and metabolic reprograming to sustain their high proliferative rate and autophagy plays a pivotal role to supply the high demand for metabolic substrates and for recycling cellular components, which has attracted the attention of the researchers. The modulation of the autophagic process sensitizes tumor cells to chemotherapy-induced cell death and reverts drug resistance. In this regard, many in vitro and in vivo studies having shown the anticancer activity of phenothiazine (PTZ) derivatives due to their potent cytotoxicity in tumor cells. Interestingly, PTZ have been used as antiemetics in antitumor chemotherapy-induced vomiting, maybe exerting a combined antitumor effect. Among the mechanisms of cytotoxicity, the modulation of autophagy by these drugs has been highlighted. Therefore, the use of PTZ derivatives can be considered as a repurposing strategy in antitumor chemotherapy. Here, we provided an overview of the effects of antipsychotic PTZ on autophagy in tumor cells, evidencing the molecular targets and discussing the underlying mechanisms. The modulation of autophagy by PTZ in tumor cells have been consistently related to their cytotoxic action. These effects depend on the derivative, their concentration, and also the type of cancer. Most data have shown the impairment of autophagic flux by PTZ, probably due to the blockade of lysosome-autophagosome fusion, but some studies have also suggested the induction of autophagy. These data highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting autophagy by PTZ in cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayssa M Lopes
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo Andre, SP, Brazil.
| | - Ana Carolina S Souza
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo Andre, SP, Brazil.
| | - Michał Otręba
- Department of Drug and Cosmetics Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland.
| | - Anna Rzepecka-Stojko
- Department of Drug and Cosmetics Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland.
| | - Ivarne L S Tersariol
- Departament of Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo Andre, SP, Brazil.
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2
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Guimarães NSS, Ramos VS, Prado-Souza LFL, Lopes RM, Arini GS, Feitosa LGP, Silva RR, Nantes IL, Damasceno DC, Lopes NP, Rodrigues T. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) Glycolic Extract Protects Liver Mitochondria from Oxidative Damage and Prevents Acetaminophen-Induced Hepatotoxicity. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12030628. [PMID: 36978874 PMCID: PMC10045355 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12030628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) is an aromatic culinary herb. Native to the Mediterranean region, it is currently cultivated worldwide. In addition to its use as a condiment in food preparation and in teas, rosemary has been widely employed in folk medicine and cosmetics. Several beneficial effects have been described for rosemary, including antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Here, we investigated the mechanisms accounting for the antioxidant activity of the glycolic extract of R. officinalis (Ro) in isolated rat liver mitochondria (RLM) under oxidative stress conditions. We also investigated its protective effect against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in vivo. A crude extract was obtained by fractionated percolation, using propylene glycol as a solvent due to its polarity and cosmeceutical compatibility. The quantification of substances with recognized antioxidant action revealed the presence of phenols and flavonoids. Dereplication studies carried out through LC-MS/MS and GC-MS, supported by The Global Natural Product Social Molecular Networking (GNPS) platform, annotated several phenolic compounds, confirming the previous observation. In accordance, Ro decreased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) elicited by Fe2+ or t-BOOH and inhibited the lipid peroxidation of mitochondrial membranes in a concentration-dependent manner in RLM. Such an effect was also observed in liposomes as membrane models. Ro also prevented the oxidation of mitochondrial protein thiol groups and reduced glutathione (GSH). In model systems, Ro exhibited a potent scavenger activity toward 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals and superoxide anions. It also demonstrated an Fe2+ chelating activity. Moreover, Ro did not exhibit cytotoxicity or dissipate the mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψ) in rat liver fibroblasts (BRL3A cells). To evaluate whether such antioxidant protective activity observed in vitro could also be achieved in vivo, a well-established model of hepatotoxicity induced by acute exposure to acetaminophen (AAP) was used. This model depletes GSH and promotes oxidative-stress-mediated tissue damage. The treatment of rats with 0.05% Ro, administered intraperitoneally for four days, resulted in inhibition of AAP-induced lipid peroxidation of the liver and the prevention of hepatotoxicity, maintaining alanine and aspartate aminotransferase (ALT/AST) levels equal to those of the normal, non-treated rats. Together, these findings highlight the potent antioxidant activity of rosemary, which is able to protect mitochondria from oxidative damage in vitro, and effects such as the antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects observed in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia S. S. Guimarães
- Interdisciplinary Center of Biochemistry Investigation, University of Mogi das Cruzes (UMC), Mogi das Cruzes CEP 08780-911, SP, Brazil
| | - Vyctória S. Ramos
- Interdisciplinary Center of Biochemistry Investigation, University of Mogi das Cruzes (UMC), Mogi das Cruzes CEP 08780-911, SP, Brazil
| | - Laura F. L. Prado-Souza
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, Santo André CEP 09210-580, SP, Brazil
| | - Rayssa M. Lopes
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, Santo André CEP 09210-580, SP, Brazil
| | - Gabriel S. Arini
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto CEP 14040-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Luís G. P. Feitosa
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto CEP 14040-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo R. Silva
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto CEP 14040-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Iseli L. Nantes
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences, Federal University of ABC, Santo André CEP 09210-580, SP, Brazil
| | - Debora C. Damasceno
- Laboratory of Experimental Research on Gynecology and Obstetrics, Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu CEP 18618-687, SP, Brazil
| | - Norberto P. Lopes
- NPPNS, Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto CEP 14040-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Interdisciplinary Center of Biochemistry Investigation, University of Mogi das Cruzes (UMC), Mogi das Cruzes CEP 08780-911, SP, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-(11)-4996-8371
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3
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Silva AR, Costa AM, Jain S, Severino P, Scher R, Nunes RS, Souto EB, Dolabella SS. 3-Carene-loaded poloxamer micelles against Leishmania: Development, characterization and in vitro proof-of-concept. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
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4
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Thermosensitive system formed by poloxamers containing carvacrol: An effective carrier system against Leishmania amazonensis. Acta Trop 2023; 237:106744. [DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Targeting Ca2+ and Mitochondrial Homeostasis by Antipsychotic Thioridazine in Leukemia Cells. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12101477. [PMID: 36294912 PMCID: PMC9605445 DOI: 10.3390/life12101477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria have pivotal roles in cellular physiology including energy metabolism, reactive oxygen species production, Ca2+ homeostasis, and apoptosis. Altered mitochondrial morphology and function is a common feature of cancer cells and the regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis has been identified as a key to the response to chemotherapeutic agents in human leukemias. Here, we explore the mechanistic aspects of cytotoxicity produced by thioridazine (TR), an antipsychotic drug that has been investigated for its anticancer potential in human leukemia cellular models. TR exerts selective cytotoxicity against human leukemia cells in vitro. A PCR array provided a general view of the expression of genes involved in cell death pathways. TR immediately produced a pulse of cytosolic Ca2+, followed by mitochondrial uptake, resulting in mitochondrial permeabilization, caspase 9/3 activation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and apoptosis. Ca2+ chelators, thiol reducer dithiothreitol, or CHOP knockdown prevented TR-induced cell death. TR also exhibited potent cytotoxicity against BCL-2/BCL-xL-overexpressing leukemia cells. Additionally, previous studies have shown that TR exhibits potent antitumor activity in vivo in different solid tumor models. These findings show that TR induces a Ca2+-mediated apoptosis with involvement of mitochondrial permeabilization and ER stress in leukemia and it emphasizes the pharmacological potential of TR as an adjuvant in antitumor chemotherapy.
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Brown JS. Treatment of cancer with antipsychotic medications: Pushing the boundaries of schizophrenia and cancer. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 141:104809. [PMID: 35970416 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Over a century ago, the phenothiazine dye, methylene blue, was discovered to have both antipsychotic and anti-cancer effects. In the 20th-century, the first phenothiazine antipsychotic, chlorpromazine, was found to inhibit cancer. During the years of elucidating the pharmacology of the phenothiazines, reserpine, an antipsychotic with a long historical background, was likewise discovered to have anti-cancer properties. Research on the effects of antipsychotics on cancer continued slowly until the 21st century when efforts to repurpose antipsychotics for cancer treatment accelerated. This review examines the history of these developments, and identifies which antipsychotics might treat cancer, and which cancers might be treated by antipsychotics. The review also describes the molecular mechanisms through which antipsychotics may inhibit cancer. Although the overlap of molecular pathways between schizophrenia and cancer have been known or suspected for many years, no comprehensive review of the subject has appeared in the psychiatric literature to assess the significance of these similarities. This review fills that gap and discusses what, if any, significance the similarities have regarding the etiology of schizophrenia.
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Ci T, Zhang W, Qiao Y, Li H, Zang J, Li H, Feng N, Gu Z. Delivery strategies in treatments of leukemia. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:2121-2144. [PMID: 35188506 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00755f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Leukemia is a hematological malignancy associated with the uncontrolled proliferation of mutant progenitors, suppressing the production of normal blood cells. Current treatments, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, still lead to unsatisfactory results with a 5 year survival rate of only 30-50%. The poor prognosis is related to both disease relapse and treatment-associated toxicity. Delivery strategies can improve the in vivo pharmacokinetics of drugs, navigating the therapeutics to target cells or the tumor microenvironment and reversing drug resistance, which maximizes tumor elimination and alleviates systematic adverse effects. This review discusses available FDA-approved anti-leukemia drugs and therapies with a focus on the advances in the development of anti-leukemia drug delivery systems. Additionally, challenges in clinical translation of the delivery strategies and future research opportunities in leukemia treatment are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyuan Ci
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Wentao Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Yingyu Qiao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210009, China
| | - Huangjuan Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 210009, China
| | - Jing Zang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Hongjun Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Nianping Feng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Zhen Gu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China. .,Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310016, China.,Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China.,MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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8
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Jiang G, Huang Z, Yuan Y, Tao K, Feng W. Intracellular delivery of anti-BCR/ABL antibody by PLGA nanoparticles suppresses the oncogenesis of chronic myeloid leukemia cells. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:139. [PMID: 34488814 PMCID: PMC8422775 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01150-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathogenesis of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is the formation of the BCR/ABL protein, which is encoded by the bcr/abl fusion gene, possessing abnormal tyrosine kinase activity. Despite the wide application of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in CML treatment, TKIs drug resistance or intolerance limits their further usage in a subset of patients. Furthermore, TKIs inhibit the tyrosine kinase activity of the BCR/ABL oncoprotein while failing to eliminate the pathologenic oncoprotein. To develop alternative strategies for CML treatment using therapeutic antibodies, and to address the issue that antibodies cannot pass through cell membranes, we have established a novel intracellular delivery of anti-BCR/ABL antibodies, which serves as a prerequisite for CML therapy. METHODS Anti-BCR/ABL antibodies were encapsulated in poly(D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) by a double emulsion method, and transferrin was labeled on the surface of the nanoparticles (Ab@Tf-Cou6-PLGA NPs). The characteristics of nanoparticles were measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cellular uptake of nanoparticles was measured by flow cytometry (FCM). The effect of nanoparticles on the apoptosis and proliferation of CML cells was testified by FCM and CCK-8 assay. In addition, the anti-cancer impact of nanoparticles was evaluated in mouse models of CML. RESULTS The results demonstrated that the Ab@Tf-Cou6-PLGA NPs functioned as an intracellular deliverer of antibodies, and exhibited an excellent effect on degrading BCR/ABL oncoprotein in CML cells via the Trim-Away pathway. Treatment with Ab@Tf-Cou6-PLGA NPs inhibited the proliferation and induced the apoptosis of CML cells in vitro as well as impaired the oncogenesis ability of CML cells in vivo. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, our study indicated that this approach achieved safe and efficient intracellular delivery of antibodies and degraded BCR/ABL oncoprotein via the Trim-Away pathway, which provides a promising therapeutic strategy for CML patients, particularly those with TKI resistance.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/administration & dosage
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/therapeutic use
- Carcinogenesis/pathology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Drug Carriers/chemistry
- Female
- Fusion Proteins, bcr-abl/antagonists & inhibitors
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/drug therapy
- Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive/pathology
- Mice, SCID
- Nanoparticles/chemistry
- Polylactic Acid-Polyglycolic Acid Copolymer/chemistry
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyun Jiang
- Department of Clinical Hematology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, No. 1, Yixueyuan Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Zhenglan Huang
- Department of Clinical Hematology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, No. 1, Yixueyuan Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Ying Yuan
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 1, Youyi Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Kun Tao
- Department of Immunology, College of Basic Medical Science, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wenli Feng
- Department of Clinical Hematology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Chongqing Medical University, No. 1, Yixueyuan Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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9
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Halloy F, Iyer PS, Ghidini A, Lysenko V, Barman-Aksözen J, Grubenmann CP, Jucker J, Wildner-Verhey van Wijk N, Ruepp MD, Minder EI, Minder AE, Schneider-Yin X, Theocharides APA, Schümperli D, Hall J. Repurposing of glycine transport inhibitors for the treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 28:1221-1234.e6. [PMID: 33756123 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2021.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) is a rare disease in which patients experience severe light sensitivity. It is caused by a deficiency of ferrochelatase (FECH), the last enzyme in heme biosynthesis (HBS). The lack of FECH causes accumulation of its photoreactive substrate protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) in patients' erythrocytes. Here, we explored an approach for the treatment of EPP by decreasing PPIX synthesis using small-molecule inhibitors directed to factors in the HBS pathway. We generated a FECH-knockout clone from K562 erythroleukemia cells, which accumulates PPIX and undergoes oxidative stress upon light exposure. We used these matched cell lines to screen a set of publicly available inhibitors of factors in the HBS pathway. Inhibitors of the glycine transporters GlyT1 and GlyT2 lowered levels of PPIX and markers of oxidative stress selectively in K56211B4 cells, and in primary erythroid cultures from an EPP patient. Our findings open the door to investigation of glycine transport inhibitors for HBS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Halloy
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pavithra S Iyer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alice Ghidini
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Veronika Lysenko
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital and University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jasmin Barman-Aksözen
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Chia-Pei Grubenmann
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jessica Jucker
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Marc-David Ruepp
- UK Dementia Research Institute at King's College London, SE5 9RT London, UK; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, SE5 8AF London, UK
| | - Elisabeth I Minder
- Department for Endocrinology, Diabetology, Porphyria, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anna-Elisabeth Minder
- Department for Endocrinology, Diabetology, Porphyria, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xiaoye Schneider-Yin
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Municipal Hospital Waid and Triemli, 8063 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandre P A Theocharides
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology, University Hospital and University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Schümperli
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jonathan Hall
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Silva A, Costa A, Jain S, Coelho E, Fujiwara R, Scher R, Nunes R, Dolabella S. Application of Poloxamers for the Development of Drug Delivery System to Treat Leishmaniasis: A Review. Curr Drug Targets 2021; 22:296-309. [PMID: 33155921 DOI: 10.2174/1389450121666201106145022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease affecting more than 1.5 million people annually, with an annual mortality of over 20.000. The drugs used for its treatment are toxic, expensive, require extended treatment times and present variable efficacy. The disease severity and therapy limitations suggest the need for new antileishmanial agents. In this context, in order to identify new options for treatment, a number of studies based on nanotechnological strategies have been carried out. Poloxamers are triblock copolymers very often utilized for nanotherapeutic solutions, resulting in products with better solubility, higher stability, superior therapeutic efficacy and less toxicity. This review will discuss the physicochemical properties of the copolymers, as well as describe the use of poloxamers for the development of therapeutic formulations to treat leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Silva
- Departamento de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, 49100-000, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Amanda Costa
- Departamento de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, 49100-000, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Sona Jain
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Biotecnologia Industrial, Universidade Tiradentes, Aracaju, 49032-490, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Coelho
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 30130-100, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Fujiwara
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Scher
- Departamento de Morfologia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, 49100-000, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Rogéria Nunes
- Departamento de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, 49100-000, Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Silvio Dolabella
- Departamento de Farmacia, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, 49100-000, Sergipe, Brazil
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11
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Pisano S, Wang X, Garcia-Parra J, Gazze A, Edwards K, Feltracco V, Hu Y, He L, Gonzalez D, Francis LW, Conlan RS, Li C. Nanomicelles potentiate histone deacetylase inhibitor efficacy in vitro. Cancer Nanotechnol 2020. [DOI: 10.1186/s12645-020-00070-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Amphiphilic block copolymers used as nanomicelle drug carriers can effectively overcome poor drug solubility and specificity issues. Hence, these platforms have a broad applicability in cancer treatment. In this study, Pluronic F127 was used to fabricate nanomicelles containing the histone deacetylase inhibitor SAHA, which has an epigenetic-driven anti-cancer effect in several tumor types. SAHA-loaded nanomicelles were prepared using a thin-film drying method and characterized for size, surface charge, drug content, and drug release properties. Loaded particles were tested for in vitro activity and their effect on cell cycle and markers of cancer progression.
Results
Following detailed particle characterization, cell proliferation experiments demonstrated that SAHA-loaded nanomicelles more effectively inhibited the growth of HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines compared with free drug formulations. The 30 nm SAHA containing nanoparticles were able to release up to 100% of the encapsulated drug over a 72 h time window. Moreover, gene and protein expression analyses suggested that their cytoreductive effect was achieved through the regulation of p21 and p53 expression. SAHA was also shown to up-regulate E-cadherin expression, potentially influencing tumor migration.
Conclusions
This study highlights the opportunity to exploit pluronic-based nanomicelles for the delivery of compounds that regulate epigenetic processes, thus inhibiting cancer development and progression.
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12
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Simvastatin-loaded nanoemulsions: development, characterization, stability study and toxicity assays. Ther Deliv 2020; 11:497-505. [PMID: 32842914 DOI: 10.4155/tde-2020-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study is to prepare and characterize simvastatin-loaded nanoemulsions (SIM-LN) as well as evaluate their physicochemical properties and toxicity. Methodology & results: The SIM-LN were prepared, their characteristics evaluated for 30 days, and after that, the SIM-LN toxicity was evaluated using Vero cell culture and the in vivo model of Caenorhabditis elegans. The prepared SIM-LN had an average droplet size of 139 ± 22 nm, with high encapsulation rate (>98.4%). The storage at room temperature proved to be the most optimal condition. Toxicity assays demonstrated no toxicity. Conclusion: It was demonstrated that the surfactants used as emulsifiers optimized the properties without side effects, because no toxicity was measured in preliminary tests.
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13
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Huang L, Huang J, Huang J, Xue H, Liang Z, Wu J, Chen C. Nanomedicine - a promising therapy for hematological malignancies. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:2376-2393. [PMID: 32314759 DOI: 10.1039/d0bm00129e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hematological tumors are a group of diseases defined as the clonal proliferation of blood-forming cells. In recent years, incidences of hematological malignancies have increased. Traditional methods of diagnosing hematological tumors are primarily based on observing morphological features under light microscopy, and molecular diagnostics and immunological indicators are powerful auxiliary diagnostic methods. However, traditional methods cannot efficiently identify tumor markers and limit the efficiency and accuracy of diagnosis. Although treatment methods have been improved continuously, chemotherapy remains a primary technique for the treatment of hematological tumors. Traditional chemotherapy exhibits poor drug selectivity and lacks good biocompatibility and pharmacokinetic properties. The therapeutic effect is not ideal and the risk of toxic side effects is high. The nanosize and surface charge properties of nanodrugs are effective in improving drug delivery efficiency. The high load and rich surface modification methods of nanomaterials provide various possibilities for improving the biocompatibility and pharmacokinetics of drugs, as well as the targeting of drugs. In addition, a nanomedicine loading platform can load multiple drugs simultaneously and design the optimal proportion of combined drug schemes, which can improve the efficacy of drugs and reduce the occurrence of drug resistance. With their unique physical and chemical properties and biological characteristics, the application of nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of hematological tumors has received considerable attention. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the application of various types of nanostructures for the diagnosis and treatment of hematological malignancies, investigate the advantages of nanomedicine compared with the traditional diagnosis and treatment of hematological tumors, and discuss their biological security and application prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lifen Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China.
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14
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Shetty A, Nagesh PK, Setua S, Hafeez BB, Jaggi M, Yallapu MM, Chauhan SC. Novel Paclitaxel Nanoformulation Impairs De Novo Lipid Synthesis in Pancreatic Cancer Cells and Enhances Gemcitabine Efficacy. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:8982-8991. [PMID: 32337462 PMCID: PMC7178800 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c00793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PanCa) is a highly lethal disease with a poor 5 year survival rate, less than 7%. It has a dismal prognosis, and more than 50% of cases are detected at an advanced and metastatic stage. Gemcitabine (GEM) is a gold standard chemotherapy used for PanCa treatment. However, GEM-acquired resistance in cancer cells is considered as a major setback for its continued clinical implementation. This phenomenon is evidently linked to de novo lipid synthesis. PanCa cells rely on de novo lipid synthesis, which is a prime event in survival and one of the key drivers for tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and drug resistance. Thus, the depletion of lipogenesis or lipid metabolism can not only improve treatment outcomes but also overcome chemoresistance, which is an unmet clinical need. Toward this effort, our study reports a unique paclitaxel-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (PPNPs) formulation which can target lipid metabolism and improve anticancer efficacy of GEM in PanCa cells. PPNPs inhibit excessive lipid formation and alter membrane stability with compromised membrane integrity, which was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared and zeta potential measurements. The effective interference of PPNPs in lipid metabolic signaling was determined by reduction in the expression of FASN, ACC, lipin, and Cox-2 proteins. This molecular action profoundly enhances efficacy of GEM as evident through enhanced inhibitory effects on the tumorigenic and metastasis assays in PanCa cells. These data clearly suggest that the ablation of lipid metabolism might offer an innovative approach for the improved therapeutic outcome in PanCa patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Advait Shetty
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
| | - Prashanth K.B. Nagesh
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
- Department
of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
| | - Saini Setua
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
| | - Bilal B. Hafeez
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
- Department
of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
- South
Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
| | - Meena Jaggi
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
- Department
of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
- South
Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
| | - Murali M. Yallapu
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
- Department
of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
- South
Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
| | - Subhash C. Chauhan
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Cancer Research, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, 38163 Tennessee, United States
- Department
of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
- South
Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, 78539 Texas, United States
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15
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do Carmo AL, Bettanin F, Oliveira Almeida M, Pantaleão SQ, Rodrigues T, Homem-de-Mello P, Honorio KM. Competition Between Phenothiazines and BH3 Peptide for the Binding Site of the Antiapoptotic BCL-2 Protein. Front Chem 2020; 8:235. [PMID: 32309275 PMCID: PMC7145989 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of proteins and mechanisms involved in the apoptosis and new knowledge about cancer's biology are essential for planning new drugs. Tumor cells develop several strategies to gain proliferative advantages, including molecular alterations to evade from apoptosis. Failures in apoptosis could contribute to cancer pathogenesis, since these defects can cause the accumulation of dividing cells and do not remove genetic variants that have malignant potential. The apoptosis mechanism is composed by proteins that are members of BCL-2 and cysteine-protease families. BH3-only peptides are the “natural” intracellular ligands of BCL-2 family proteins. On the other hand, studies have proved that phenothiazine compounds influence the induction of cellular death. To understand the characteristics of phenothiazines and their effects on tumoral cells and organelles involved in the apoptosis, as well as evaluating their pharmacologic potential, we have carried out computational simulation with the purpose of relating the structures of the phenothiazines with their biological activity. Since the tridimensional (3D) structure of the target protein is known, we have employed the molecular docking approach to study the interactions between compounds and the protein's active site. Hereafter, the molecular dynamics technique was used to verify the temporal evolution of the BCL-2 complexes with phenothiazinic compounds and the BH3 peptide, the stability and the mobility of these molecules in the BCL-2 binding site. From these results, the calculation of binding free energy between the compounds and the biological target was carried out. Thus, it was possible to verify that thioridazine and trifluoperazine tend to increase the stability of the BCL-2 protein and can compete for the binding site with the BH3 peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fernanda Bettanin
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - Paula Homem-de-Mello
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - Kathia Maria Honorio
- Centro de Ciências Naturais e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil.,Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
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16
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Medeiros HCD, Colturato-Kido C, Ferraz LS, Costa CA, Moraes VWR, Paredes-Gamero EJ, Tersariol ILS, Rodrigues T. AMPK activation induced by promethazine increases NOXA expression and Beclin-1 phosphorylation and drives autophagy-associated apoptosis in chronic myeloid leukemia. Chem Biol Interact 2019; 315:108888. [PMID: 31682805 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2019.108888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Relapse and drug resistance is still major challenges in the treatment of leukemia. Promethazine, an antihistaminic phenothiazine derivative, has been used to prevent chemotherapy-induced emesis, although there is no report about its antitumor potential. Thus, we evaluated the promethazine cytotoxicity against several leukemia cells and the underlying mechanisms were investigated. Promethazine exhibited potent and selective cytotoxicity against all leukemia cell types in vitro at clinically relevant concentrations. Philadelphia positive chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) K562 cells were the most sensitive cell line. The cytotoxicity of promethazine in these cells was triggered by the activation of AMPK and inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. The subsequent downstream effects were NOXA increase, MCL-1 decrease, and Beclin-1 activation, resulting in autophagy-associated apoptosis. These data highlight targeting autophagy may represent an interesting strategy in CML therapy, and also the antitumor potential of promethazine by acting in AMPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways. Since this drug is currently used with relative low side effects, its repurposing may represent a new therapeutic opportunity for leukemia treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyllana C D Medeiros
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Carina Colturato-Kido
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Letícia S Ferraz
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudia A Costa
- Interdisciplinary Center of Biochemistry Investigation (CIIB), University of Mogi das Cruzes (UMC), Mogi das Cruzes, SP, Brazil
| | - Vivian W R Moraes
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Edgar Julian Paredes-Gamero
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS), Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil
| | - Ivarne L S Tersariol
- Department of Biochemistry, São Paulo School of Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Center for Natural and Human Sciences (CCNH), Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil.
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17
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Napimoga MH, Clemente-Napimoga JT, Machabanski NM, Juliani MEA, Acras PHBC, Macedo CG, Abdalla HB, de Pinho AJ, Soares AB, Sperandio M, de Araújo DR. The 15d‑PGJ2 hydrogel ameliorates atopic dermatitis through suppression of the immune response. Mol Med Rep 2019; 19:4536-4544. [PMID: 31059034 PMCID: PMC6522822 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study examined the efficacy of the topical 15d-PGJ2-poloxamer 407 hydrogel in an atopic dermatitis (AD) animal model. The 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel was prepared and characterized. The examined rats possessed AD-Like cutaneous lesions, which were induced using 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene, the rats were then treated with a hydrogel vehicle, 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel or tacrolimus for 14 days. The rats were sacrificed and blood samples were collected to quantify the IgE levels. Subsequently, skin biopsies were stained with toluidine blue to identify mast cells and immunohistochemistry was performed for ROR-γt and TNF-α. Histological analyses demonstrated that 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel significantly decreased mast cell infiltration (P<0.05) when compared with the AD-group. Tacrolimus at 0.1% exhibited decreased mast cell infiltration; however, this difference was not statistically significant from the AD-group. Topical 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel and Tacrolimus 0.1% significantly reduced the serum levels of IgE (P<0.05) compared with the AD-group. Immunohistochemistry revealed a significant decrease in ROR-γt and TNF-α positive cell expression (P<0.05) in the 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel group compared with the AD-group. In summary, topical administration of 15d-PGJ2 hydrogel had a beneficial effect on AD symptoms, suggesting that this formulation may be a useful strategy for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo H Napimoga
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Juliana T Clemente-Napimoga
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Nina M Machabanski
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Maria Eduarda A Juliani
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique B C Acras
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Cristina G Macedo
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Henrique B Abdalla
- Laboratory of Orofacial Pain, Department of Physiology, Piracicaba Dental School, State University of Campinas, Piracicaba, São Paulo 13414‑903, Brazil
| | - Antônio José de Pinho
- Laboratory of Immunology and Molecular Biology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Andresa B Soares
- Department of Oral Pathology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Sperandio
- Department of Oral Pathology, São Leopoldo Mandic Institute and Research Center, Campinas, São Paulo 13045‑755, Brazil
| | - Daniele R de Araújo
- Center of Human and Natural Sciences, Federal University of ABC, Santo André, São Paulo 09210‑580, Brazil
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18
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Rakshit S, Sarkar A, Bhattacharya SC. A differential approach towards understanding the enhanced emission induced superior bio-imaging and cytotoxicity within block copolymeric nanomicelles. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 155:390-398. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 04/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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19
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Jin X, Asghar S, Zhu X, Chen Z, Liu J, Li Y, Li H, Ping Q, Xiao Y. Enhanced oral bioavailability of 10-hydroxycamptothecin through the use of poly (n-butyl cyanoacrylate) nanospheres. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2017; 43:1637-1647. [DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2017.1328432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Sajid Asghar
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Government College University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Xieting Zhu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Zhipeng Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Junhong Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Yibo Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Hongying Li
- Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, PR China
| | - Qineng Ping
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Yanyu Xiao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, PR China
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