The endocannabinoid anandamide causes endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation in human mesenteric arteries

Altered levels of phospholipases C, diacylglycerols, endocannabinoids, and N-acylethanolamines in patients with hereditary angioedema due to FXII mutation

BACKGROUND

Hereditary angioedema (HAE) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by local, self-limiting edema due to temporary increase in vascular permeability. HAE with normal C1 esterase inhibitor (C1INH) activity includes the form with mutations in the F12 gene encoding for coagulation factor XII (FXII-HAE) causing an overproduction of bradykinin (BK) leading to angioedema attack. BK binding to B2 receptors (BK2R) leads to an activation of phospholipase C (PLC) and subsequent generation of second messengers: diacylglycerols (DAGs) and possibly the endocannabinoids (eCBs), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA), and eCB-related N-acylethanolamines [palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA)]. To date, there are no data on the role of these lipid mediators in FXII-HAE.

METHODS

Here, we analyzed plasma levels of PLC, DAGs, and eCBs in 40 patients with FXII-HAE and 40 sex- and age-matched healthy individuals.

RESULTS

Plasma PLC activity was increased in FXII-HAE patients compared to controls. Concentrations of DAG 18:1-20:4, a lipid second messenger produced by PLC, were higher in FXII-HAE compared to controls, and positively correlated with PLC activity and cleaved high molecular kininogen (cHK). Also the concentrations of the DAG metabolite, 2-AG were altered in FXII-HAE. AEA and OEA were decreased in FXII-HAE patients compared to controls; by contrast, PEA, was increased. The levels of all tested mediators did not differ between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Moreover, C1INH-HAE patients had elevated plasma levels of PLC, which correlated with cHK, but the levels of DAGs and eCBs were the same as controls.

CONCLUSIONS

BK overproduction and BKR2 activation are linked to alteration of PLCs and their metabolites in patients with FXII-HAE. Our results may pave way to investigations on the functions of these mediators in the pathophysiology of FXII-HAE, and provide new potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Cannabinoid Analgesia in Postoperative Pain Management: From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Reality

Postoperative pain (POP) is a challenging clinical phenomenon that affects the majority of surgical patients and demands effective management to mitigate adverse outcomes such as persistent pain. The primary goal of POP management is to alleviate suffering and facilitate a seamless return to normal function for the patient. Despite compelling evidence of its drawbacks, opioid analgesia remains the basis of POP treatment. Novel therapeutic approaches rely on multimodal analgesia, integrating different pharmacological strategies to optimize efficacy while minimizing adverse effects. The recognition of the imperative role of the endocannabinoid system in pain regulation has prompted the investigation of cannabinoid compounds as a new therapeutic avenue. Cannabinoids may serve as adjuvants, enhancing the analgesic effects of other drugs and potentially replacing or at least reducing the dependence on other long-term analgesics in pain management. This narrative review succinctly summarizes pertinent information on the molecular mechanisms, clinical therapeutic benefits, and considerations associated with the plausible use of various cannabinoid compounds in treating POP. According to the available evidence, cannabinoid compounds modulate specific molecular mechanisms intimately involved in POP. However, only two of the eleven clinical trials that evaluated the efficacy of different cannabinoid interventions showed positive results.

Affinin, Isolated from Heliopsis longipes, Induces an Antihypertensive Effect That Involves CB1 Cannabinoid Receptors and TRPA1 and TRPV1 Channel Activation

In previous studies, we demonstrated that the ethanolic extract of Heliopsis longipes roots and its main alkamide, affinin, elicit a vasorelaxant effect through a mechanism involving activation of the gasotransmitter pathways and stimulation of cannabinoid type 1 receptors and transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channels. However, it has not yet been demonstrated whether the EEH and affinin are capable of lowering high blood pressure. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine the effect of the oral administration of the EEH and affinin on the systolic blood pressure of NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester-induced hypertensive rats and to explore the participation of cannabinoid receptors and transient receptor potential channels in the mechanism of action of this alkamide. Our results showed that the ethanolic extract of H. longipes and affinin significantly lowered systolic blood pressure and induced an improvement in endothelial function, which is associated with increased serum nitric oxide levels. Inhibition of cannabinoid type 1 receptors by rimonabant (3 mg/kg), transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 channels by HC-030031 (8 mg/kg), and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channels by capsazepine (5 mg/kg) significantly decreased the antihypertensive effect induced by affinin, suggesting that the blood pressure-lowering effect of this alkamide involves activation of cannabinoid type 1 receptors and transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 and transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channels.

The Effects of Endogenous Cannabinoids on the Mammalian Respiratory System: A Scoping Review of Cyclooxygenase-Dependent Pathways

Introduction: The endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid) system is an emerging target for the treatment of chronic inflammatory disease with the potential to advance treatment for many respiratory illnesses. The varied effects of endocannabinoids across tissue types makes it imperative that we explore their physiologic impact within unique tissue targets. The aim of this scoping review is to explore the impact of endocannabinoid activity on eicosanoid production as a measure of human airway inflammation. Methods: A scoping literature review was conducted according to PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines. Search strategies using MeSH terms related to cannabinoids, eicosanoids, cyclooxygenase (COX), and the respiratory system were used to query Medline, Embase, Cochrane, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Biosis Previews in December 2021. Only studies that investigated the relationship between endocannabinoids and the eicosanoid system in mammalian respiratory tissue after 1992 were included. Results: Sixteen studies were incorporated in the final qualitative review. Endocannabinoid activation increases COX-2 expression, potentially through ceramide-dependent or p38 and p42/44 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase pathways and is associated with a concentration-dependent increase in prostaglandin (PG)E2. Inhibitors of endocannabinoid hydrolysis found either an increase or no change in levels of PGE2 and PGD2 and decreased levels of leukotriene (LT)B4, PGI2, and thromboxane A2 (TXA2). Endocannabinoids increase bronchial epithelial cell permeability and have vasorelaxant effects in human pulmonary arteries and cause contraction of bronchi and decreased gas trapping in guinea pigs. Inhibitors of endocannabinoid hydrolysis were found to have anti-inflammatory effects on pulmonary tissue and are primarily mediated by COX-2 and activation of eicosanoid receptors. Direct agonism of endocannabinoid receptors appears to play a minor role. Conclusion: The endocannabinoid system has diverse effects on the mammalian airway. While endocannabinoid-derived PGs can have anti-inflammatory effects, endocannabinoids also produce proinflammatory conditions, such as increased epithelial permeability and bronchial contraction. These conflicting findings suggest that endocannabinoids produce a variety of effects depending on their local metabolism and receptor agonism. Elucidation of the complex interplay between the endocannabinoid and eicosanoid pathways is key to leveraging the endocannabinoid system as a potential therapeutic target for human airway disease.

CP55940-induced vasorelaxation is endothelial-dependent and mediated by the CB1R through NOS, COX and EDHF pathways in porcine cerebral arteries

Using swine as an experimental model, we chose to examine whether the cannabinoid receptors, e.g. CB1R and the CB2R, could affect vasomotor tone in isolated pial arteries. It was hypothesized that the CB1R would specifically mediate cerebral artery vasorelaxation in an endothelial-dependent manner. First-order pial arteries were isolated from female Landrace pigs (age = 2 months; N = 27) for wire and pressure myography. Arteries were pre-contracted with a thromboxane A₂ analogue (U-46619) and vasorelaxation in response to the CB1R and CB2R receptor mixed agonist CP55940 was examined in the following conditions: 1) untreated; 2) inhibition of the CB1R (AM251); or 3) inhibition of the CB2R receptor (AM630). The data revealed that CP55940 elicits a CB1R-dependent relaxation in pial arteries. CB1R expression was confirmed using immunoblot and immunohistochemical analyses. Subsequently, the role of different endothelial-dependent pathways in the CB1R-mediated vasorelaxation was examined using: 1) denudation (removal of the endothelium); 2) inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX; Naproxen); 3) inhibition of nitric oxide synthase (NOS; L-NAME); 4) combined inhibition of COX + NOS. The data revealed CB1R-mediated vasorelaxation was endothelial-dependent, with contributions from COX-derived prostaglandins, NO, and endothelium-dependent hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF). Pressurized arteries underwent myogenic curves (20-100 mmHg) under the following conditions: 1) untreated; 2) inhibition of the CB1R. The data revealed CB1R inhibition increased basal myogenic tone, but not myogenic reactivity. As the vascular responses were assessed in isolated pial arteries, this work reveals that the CB1R modulates cerebrovascular tone independently of changes in brain metabolism.

Considerations for Cannabinoids in Perioperative Care by Anesthesiologists

Increased usage of recreational and medically indicated cannabinoid compounds has been an undeniable reality for anesthesiologists in recent years. These compounds’ complicated pharmacology, composition, and biological effects result in challenging issues for anesthesiologists during different phases of perioperative care. Here, we review the existing formulation of cannabinoids and their biological activity to put them into the context of the anesthesia plan execution. Perioperative considerations should include a way to gauge the patient’s intake of cannabinoids, the ability to gain consent properly, and vigilance to the increased risk of pulmonary and airway problems. Intraoperative management in individuals with cannabinoid use is complicated by the effects cannabinoids have on general anesthetics and depth of anesthesia monitoring while simultaneously increasing the potential occurrence of intraoperative hemodynamic instability. Postoperative planning should involve higher vigilance to the risk of postoperative strokes and acute coronary syndromes. However, most of the data are not up to date, rending definite conclusions on the importance of perioperative cannabinoid intake on anesthesia management difficult.

Endocannabinoid System in Polycystic Kidney Disease

INTRODUCTION

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is a commonly inherited disorder characterized by renal cyst formation. A major pathological feature of ADPKD is the development of interstitial inflammation. The endocannabinoid (EC) system is present in the kidney and has recently emerged as an important player in inflammation and the pathogenesis of progressive kidney disease.

METHODS

Data on ECs were collected using a validated mass spectrometry assay from a well-characterized cohort of 102 ADPKD patients (at baseline and after 2- and 4 years on standard vs. rigorous blood-pressure control) and compared to 100 healthy subjects.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy individuals, we found higher interleukins-6 and -1b as well as reduced plasma levels of anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG), and their congeners in ADPKD patients. Baseline AEA concentration negatively associated with the progression of ADPKD as expressed by the yearly percent change in height-corrected total kidney volume and positively with the yearly change in renal function (measured as estimated glomerular filtration rate, ΔeGFR). AEA analog palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is also associated positively with the yearly change in eGFR.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results of the present study suggest that ADPKD patients present with lower levels of ECs and that reestablishing the normality of the renal EC system via augmentation of AEA, PEA, and 2-AG levels, either through the increase of their synthesis or through a reduction of their degradation, could be beneficial and may present a promising therapeutic target in said patients.

Cannabinoids-A New Perspective in Adjuvant Therapy for Pulmonary Hypertension

Currently, no treatment can completely cure pulmonary hypertension (PH), which can lead to right ventricular failure and, consequently, death. Therefore, searching for new therapies remains important. Increased resistance in pulmonary circulation is mainly caused by the excessive contraction and proliferation of small pulmonary arteries. Cannabinoids, a group of lipophilic compounds that all interact with cannabinoid receptors, exert a pulmonary vasodilatory effect through several different mechanisms, including mechanisms that depend on vascular endothelium and/or receptor-based mechanisms, and may also have anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties. The vasodilatory effect is important in regulating pulmonary resistance, which can improve patients’ quality of life. Moreover, experimental studies on the effects of cannabidiol (plant-derived, non-psychoactive cannabinoid) in animal PH models have shown that cannabidiol reduces right ventricular systolic pressure and excessive remodelling and decreases pulmonary vascular hypertrophy and pulmonary vascular resistance. Due to the potentially beneficial effects of cannabinoids on pulmonary circulation and PH, in this work, we review whether cannabinoids can be used as an adjunctive therapy for PH. However, clinical trials are still needed to recommend the use of cannabinoids in the treatment of PH.

Multifactorial Basis and Therapeutic Strategies in Metabolism-Related Diseases

Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the incidence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic diseases, has been increasing worldwide. Changes in dietary and physical activity patterns, along with genetic conditions, are the main factors that modulate the metabolism of individuals, leading to the development of NCDs. Obesity, diabetes, metabolic associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are classified in this group of chronic diseases. Therefore, understanding the underlying molecular mechanisms of these diseases leads us to develop more accurate and effective treatments to reduce or mitigate their prevalence in the population. Given the global relevance of NCDs and ongoing research progress, this article reviews the current understanding about NCDs and their related risk factors, with a focus on obesity, diabetes, MAFLD, and CVDs, summarizing the knowledge about their pathophysiology and highlighting the currently available and emerging therapeutic strategies, especially pharmacological interventions. All of these diseases play an important role in the contamination by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, as well as in the progression and severity of the symptoms of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, we briefly explore the relationship between NCDs and COVID-19.

Endothelial TRP channels and cannabinoid receptors are involved in affinin-induced vasodilation

Affinin is mainly recognized by its antinociceptive effect. Recently, our research group demonstrated that this compound produces vasodilation via activation of the gasotransmitters signaling pathways. However, the molecular targets of affinin were not identified. Considering the structural similarity of this alkamide with anandamide, we hypothesized that affinin-induced vasodilation could involve participation of TRP channels and cannabinoid receptors. In this work, by using the isolated rat aorta assay, we assessed involvement of TRP channels, the cannabinoid system, and the HNO-CGRP-TRPA₁ pathway on the mechanism of action of affinin. Additionally, we measured NO and H₂S levels elicited by affinin on rat aorta homogenates and carried out computer simulations of molecular interactions between affinin and the TRPA₁ and TRPV₁ channels and the CB₁ receptor. Our results indicated that affinin induces an increase in aortic NO and H₂S levels. We found evidence that the vasodilator effect induced by affinin involves activation of TRPA₁ and TRPV₁ channels and the CB₁ and eCB receptors. In silico analyses showed that affinin is able to bind with high affinity to these molecular targets. Moreover, we also proved that affinin-induced vasodilation is partly mediated via activation of the HNO-TRPA₁-CGRP pathway. Based on these results we propose a novel mechanism of action to explain the vasodilatory effect of affinin, which could be developed as an alternative drug to treat cardiovascular diseases.

A Potential Involvement of Anandamide in the Modulation of HO/NOS Systems: Women, Menopause, and "Medical Cannabinoids"

Endocannabinoids and their receptors are present in the cardiovascular system; however, their actions under different pathological conditions remain controversial. The aim of our study was to examine the effects of anandamide (AEA) on heme oxygenase (HO) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) systems in an estrogen-depleted rat model. Sham-operated (SO) and surgically induced estrogen-deficient (OVX) female Wistar rats were used. During a two-week period, a group of OVX rats received 0.1 mg/kg estrogen (E₂) per os, while AEA-induced alterations were analyzed after two weeks of AEA treatment at the dose of 1.0 mg/kg. At the end of the experiment, cardiac activity and expression of HO and NOS enzymes, content of cannabinoid 1 receptor, as well as concentrations of transient potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) were measured. Our results show that estrogen withdrawal caused a significant decrease in both NOS and HO systems, and a similar tendency was observed regarding the TRPV1/CGRP pathway. Two weeks of either AEA or E₂ treatment restored the adverse changes; however, the combined administration of these two molecules did not result in a further improvement. In light of the potential relationship between AEA and HO/NOS systems, AEA-induced upregulation of HO/NOS enzymes may be a therapeutic strategy in estrogen-deficient conditions.

Synthesis, physicochemical characterisation and biological activity of anandamide/ɛ-polycaprolactone nanoparticles obtained by electrospraying

Drug encapsulation in nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles (Nps) may help to overcome the limitations associated with cannabinoids. In this study, the authors' work aimed to highlight the use of electrospraying techniques for the development of carrier Nps of anandamide (AEA), an endocannabinoid with attractive pharmacological effects but underestimated due to its unfavourable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties added to its undesirable effects at the level of the central nervous system. The authors characterised physicochemically and evaluated in vitro biological activity of anandamide/ɛ-polycaprolactone nanoparticles (Nps-AEA/PCL) obtained by electrospraying in epithelial cells of the human proximal tubule (HK2), to prove the utility of this method and to validate the biological effect of Nps-AEA/PCL. They obtained particles from 100 to 900 nm of diameter with a predominance of 200-400 nm. Their zeta potential was -20 ± 1.86 mV. They demonstrated the stable encapsulation of AEA in Nps-AEA/PCL, as well as its dose-dependent capacity to induce the expression of iNOS and NO levels and to decrease the Na+/K+ ATPase activity in HK2 cells. Obtaining Nps-AEA/PCL by electrospraying would represent a promising methodology for a novel AEA pharmaceutical formulation development with optimal physicochemical properties, physical stability and biological activity on HK2 cells.

Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol is elevated in the coronary circulation during acute coronary syndrome

Objectives

The endocannabinoid system modulates coronary circulatory function and atherogenesis. The two major endocannabinoids (eCB), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and N-arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA), are increased in venous blood from patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). However, given their short half-life and their autocrine/paracrine mechanism of action, eCB levels in venous blood samples might not reflect arterial or coronary eCB concentrations. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to identify the local concentration profile of eCB and to detect whether and how this concentration profile changes in CAD and NSTEMI versus patients without CAD.

Methods and results

83 patients undergoing coronary angiography were included in this study. Patients were divided into three groups based on their definite diagnosis of a) no CAD, b) stable CAD, or c) non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Blood was drawn from the arterial sheath and the aorta in all patients and additionally distal to the culprit coronary lesion in CAD- and NSTEMI patients. 2-AG levels varied significantly between patient groups and between the sites of blood extraction. The lowest levels were detected in patients without CAD; the highest 2-AG concentrations were detected in NSTEMI patients and in the coronary arteries. Peripheral 2-AG levels were significantly higher in NSTEMI patients (107.4 ± 28.4 pmol/ml) than in CAD- (17.4 ± 5.4 pmol/ml; p < 0.001), or no-CAD patients (23.9 ± 7.1 pmol/ml; p < 0.001). Moreover, coronary 2-AG levels were significantly higher in NSTEMI patients than in CAD patients (369.3 ± 57.2 pmol/ml vs. 240.1 ± 25.3 pmol/ml; p = 0.024).

Conclusions

2-AG showed significant variability in arterial blood samples drawn from distinct locations. Possibly, lesional macrophages synthesise 2-AG locally, which thereby contributes to endothelial dysfunction and local inflammation.

Cannabinoids and Cardiovascular System

Cannabinoids influence cardiovascular variables in health and disease via multiple mechanisms. The chapter covers the impact of cannabinoids on cardiovascular function in physiology and pathology and presents a critical analysis of the proposed signalling pathways governing regulation of cardiovascular function by endogenously produced and exogenous cannabinoids. We know that endocannabinoid system is overactivated under pathological conditions and plays both a protective compensatory role, such as in some forms of hypertension, atherosclerosis and other inflammatory conditions, and a pathophysiological role, such as in disease states associated with excessive hypotension. This chapter focuses on the mechanisms affecting hemodynamics and vasomotor effects of cannabinoids in health and disease states, highlighting mismatches between some studies. The chapter will first review the effects of marijuana smoking on cardiovascular system and then describe the impact of exogenous cannabinoids on cardiovascular parameters in humans and experimental animals. This will be followed by analysis of the impact of cannabinoids on reactivity of isolated vessels. The article critically reviews current knowledge on cannabinoid induction of vascular relaxation by cannabinoid receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms and dysregulation of vascular endocannabinoid signaling in disease states.

The endocannabinoid system of the skin. A potential approach for the treatment of skin disorders

The skin is the largest organ of the body and has a complex and very active structure that contributes to homeostasis and provides the first line defense against injury and infection. In the past few years it has become evident that the endocannabinoid system (ECS) plays a relevant role in healthy and diseased skin. Specifically, we review how the dysregulation of ECS has been associated to dermatological disorders such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, scleroderma and skin cancer. Therefore, the druggability of the ECS could open new research avenues for the treatment of the pathologies mentioned. Numerous studies have reported that phytocannabinoids and their biological analogues modulate a complex network pharmacology involved in the modulation of ECS, focusing on classical cannabinoid receptors, transient receptor potential channels (TRPs), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). The combined targeting of several end-points seems critical to provide better chances of therapeutically success, in sharp contrast to the one-disease-one-target dogma that permeates current drug discovery campaigns.

Profiling plasma N-Acylethanolamine levels and their ratios as a biomarker of obesity and dysmetabolism

Objective

N-acylethanolamines play different roles in energy balance; anandamide (AEA) stimulates energy intake and storage, N-palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) counters inflammation, and N-oleoylethanolamide (OEA) mediates anorectic signals and lipid oxidation. Inconsistencies in the association of plasma N-acylethanolamines with human obesity and cardiometabolic risk have emerged among previous studies, possibly caused by heterogeneous cohorts and designs, and by unstandardized N-acylethanolamine measurements. We aimed to characterize changes in the plasma profile, including N-acylethanolamine levels and ratios associated with obesity, menopause in women, and ageing in men, and to define the significance of such a profile as a biomarker for metabolic imbalance.

Methods

Adult, drug-free women (n = 103 premenopausal and n = 81 menopausal) and men (n = 144) were stratified according to the body mass index (BMI) into normal weight (NW; BMI: 18.5–24.9 kg/m²), overweight (OW; BMI: 25.0–29.9 kg/m²), and obese (OB; BMI ≥30.0 kg/m²). Anthropometric and metabolic parameters were determined. Validated blood processing and analytical procedures for N-acylethanolamine measurements were used. We investigated the effect of BMI and menopause in women, and BMI and age in men, as well as the BMI-independent influence of metabolic parameters on the N-acylethanolamine profile.

Results

BMI and waist circumference directly associated with AEA in women and men, and with PEA in premenopausal women and in men, while BMI directly associated with OEA in premenopausal women and in men. BMI, in both genders, and waist circumference, in women only, inversely associated with PEA/AEA and OEA/AEA. Menopause increased N-acylethanolamine levels, whereas ageing resulted in increasing OEA relative abundance in men. AEA and OEA abundances in premenopausal, and PEA and OEA abundances in lean menopausal women, were directly associated with hypertension. Conversely, PEA and OEA abundances lowered with hypertension in elderly men. Insulin resistance was associated with changes in N-acylethanolamine ratios specific for premenopausal (reduced PEA/AEA and OEA/AEA), menopausal (reduced OEA/AEA) women and men (reduced OEA/AEA and OEA/PEA). PEA and OEA levels increased with total cholesterol, and OEA abundance specifically increased with HDL-cholesterol. Elevated triglyceride levels were associated with increased N-acylethanolamine levels only in menopausal women.

Conclusions

Obesity-related N-acylethanolamine hypertone is characterized by imbalanced N-acylethanolamine ratios. The profile given by a combination of N-acylethanolamine absolute levels and ratios enables imbalances to be identified in relationship with different metabolic parameters, with specific relevance according to gender, menopause and age, representing a useful means for monitoring metabolic health. Finally, N-acylethanolamine system appears a promising target for intervention strategies.

•

Obesity is featured by plasma N-acylethanolamine excess and imbalanced ratios.

•

AEA excess is a biomarker of abdominal fat irrespectively of sex and menopause/age.

•

PEA and OEA protect from hypertension in gender and menopause/age specific fashion.

•

AEA excess in women and OEA deficiency in men are biomarkers of insulin resistance.

•

High AEA in men and low OEA in men and menopausal women reflect low HDL-cholesterol.

Anandamide and endocannabinoid system: an attractive therapeutic approach for cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease is currently not adequately managed and has become one of the main causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Current therapies are inadequate in terms of preventing its progression. There are several limitations, such as poor oral bioavailability, side effects, low adherence to treatment, and high dosage frequency of formulations due to the short half-life of the active ingredients used, among others. This review aims to highlight the most relevant aspects of the relationship between the cardiovascular system and the endocannabinoid system, with special attention to the possible translational effect of the use of anandamide in cardiovascular health. The deep and detailed knowledge of this interaction, not always beneficial, and that for years has gone unnoticed, is essential for the development of new therapies. We discuss the most recent and representative results obtained in the field of basic research, referring to the aforementioned subject, emphasizing fundamentally the main role of nitric oxide, renal physiology and its deregulation in pathological processes.

Effect of maternal high-fat diet on key components of the placental and hepatic endocannabinoid system

Maternal obesity in pregnancy has been linked to a spectrum of adverse developmental changes. Involvement of eCBs in obesity is well characterized. However, information regarding eCB physiology in obesity associated with pregnancy is sparse. This study evaluated fetomaternal hepatic, systemic, and placental eCB molecular changes in response to maternal consumption of a HFD. From ≥9 mo before conception, nonpregnant baboons ( Papio spp.) were fed a diet of either 45 (HFD; n = 11) or 12% fat or a control diet (CTR; n = 11), and dietary intervention continued through pregnancy. Maternal and fetal venous plasma samples were evaluated using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to quantify AEA and 2-AG. Placental, maternal and fetal hepatic tissues were analyzed using RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. mRNA and protein expression of endocannabinoid receptors (CB1R and CB2R), FAAH, DAGL, MAGL, and COX-2 were determined. Statistical analyses were performed with the nonparametric Scheirer-Ray-Hare extension of the Kruskal-Wallis test to analyze the effects of diet (HFD vs. CTR), fetal sex (male vs. female), and the diet × sex interaction. Fetal weight was influenced by fetal sex but not by maternal diet. The increase in maternal weight in animals fed the HFD vs. the CTR diet approached significance ( P = 0.055). Maternal circulating 2-AG concentrations increased, and fetal circulating concentrations decreased in the HFD group, independently of fetal sex. CB1R receptor expression was detected in syncytiotrophoblasts (HFD) and the fetal endothelium (CTR and HFD). Placental CB2R protein expression was higher in males and lower in female fetuses in the HFD group. Fetal hepatic CB2R, FAAH, COX-2 (for both fetal sexes), and DAGLα (in male fetuses) protein expression decreased in the HFD group compared with the CTR group. We conclude that consumption of a HFD during pregnancy results in fetal systemic 2-AG and hepatic eCB deficiency.

The quest for endothelial atypical cannabinoid receptor: BKCa channels act as cellular sensors for cannabinoids in in vitro and in situ endothelial cells

Endothelium-dependent component of cannabinoid-induced vasodilation has been postulated to require G-protein-coupled non-CB1/CB2 endothelial cannabinoid (eCB) receptor. GPR18 was proposed as a candidate for eCBR. To address the hypothesis that the effects attributed to eCBR are mediated by G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-independent targets, we studied the electrical responses in endothelial cells, focusing on BKCa channels. In patches excised from endothelial-derived EA.hy926 cells, N-arachidonoyl glycine (NAGly) and abnormal cannabidiol (abn-cbd), prototypical agonists for eCB receptor, stimulate single BKCa activity in a concentration- and Ca2+-dependent manner. The postulated eCB receptor inhibitors rimonabant and AM251 were found to inhibit basal and stimulated by NAGly- and abn-cbd BKCa activity in cell-free patches. In isolated mice aortas, abn-cbd and NAGly produced endothelial cell hyperpolarization that was sensitive to paxilline, a selective BKCa inhibitor, but not to GPR18 antibody, and mimicked by NS1619, a direct BKCa opener. In excised patches from mice aortic endothelium, single channel activity with characteristics similar to BKCa was established by the addition of abn-cbd and NAGly. We conclude that the two cannabinoids abn-cbd and NAGly initiate a GPR18-independent activation of BKCa channels in mice aortic endothelial cells that might contribute to vasodilation to cannabinoids.

The endocannabinoid system in cardiovascular function: novel insights and clinical implications

RATIONALE

Cardiovascular disease is now recognized as the number one cause of death in the world, and the size of the population at risk continues to increase rapidly. The dysregulation of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system plays a central role in a wide variety of conditions including cardiovascular disorders. Cannabinoid receptors, their endogenous ligands, as well as enzymes conferring their synthesis and degradation, exhibit overlapping distributions in the cardiovascular system. Furthermore, the pharmacological manipulation of the eCB system has effects on blood pressure, cardiac contractility, and endothelial vasomotor control. Growing evidence from animal studies supports the significance of the eCB system in cardiovascular disorders.

OBJECTIVE

To summarize the literature surrounding the eCB system in cardiovascular function and disease and the new compounds that may potentially extend the range of available interventions.

RESULTS

Drugs targeting CB1R, CB2R, TRPV1 and PPARs are proven effective in animal models mimicking cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. Despite the setback of two clinical trials that exhibited unexpected harmful side-effects, preclinical studies are accelerating the development of more selective drugs with promising results devoid of adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Over the last years, increasing evidence from basic and clinical research supports the role of the eCB system in cardiovascular function. Whereas new discoveries are paving the way for the identification of novel drugs and therapeutic targets, the close cooperation of researchers, clinicians and pharmaceutical companies is needed to achieve successful outcomes.

Endocannabinoids modulate Gq/11 protein-coupled receptor agonist-induced vasoconstriction via a negative feedback mechanism

OBJECTIVES

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system centrally and peripherally regulates cardiovascular parameters, including blood pressure, in health and disease. The relationship between G_q/11 protein-coupled receptor activation, regulation of eCBs release (mainly 2-arachidonoylglycerol) and subsequent CB₁ receptor activation was initially observed in the central nervous system. Here, we review the latest findings from systemic physiological studies which include for the first time data from pulmonary arteries. We present evidence for direct CB₁ -dependent cannabinoid ligand-induced vasorelaxation, vascular expression of eCBs along with their degradation enzymes, and indicate the location of the described interaction.

KEY FINDINGS

Endocannabinoids (mainly 2-arachidonoylglycerol), acting via CB₁ receptors, evoke vasodilatory effects and may modulate responses of vasoconstrictors for G_q/11 protein-coupled receptors including angiotensin II, thromboxane A₂ , phenylephrine, noradrenaline in systemic or pulmonary arteries. However, the role of the endothelium in this interaction is not well-established, and the precise vascular location of eCB system components remains unclear, which contributes to discrepancies in the interpretation of results when describing the above-mentioned relationship.

SUMMARY

Endocannabinoid's negative feedback is responsible for diminishing agonist-induced vasoconstriction, which may be clinically important in the treatment of arterial and pulmonary hypertension. Further research is required to establish the importance of the eCB system and its downstream signalling pathways.

Cannabinoids in the Cardiovascular System

Cannabinoids are known to modulate cardiovascular functions including heart rate, vascular tone, and blood pressure in humans and animal models. Essential components of the endocannabinoid system, namely, the production, degradation, and signaling pathways of endocannabinoids have been described not only in the central and peripheral nervous system but also in myocardium, vasculature, platelets, and immune cells. The mechanisms of cardiovascular responses to endocannabinoids are often complex and may involve cannabinoid CB₁ and CB₂ receptors or non-CB_1/2 receptor targets. Preclinical and some clinical studies have suggested that targeting the endocannabinoid system can improve cardiovascular functions in a number of pathophysiological conditions, including hypertension, metabolic syndrome, sepsis, and atherosclerosis. In this chapter, we summarize the local and systemic cardiovascular effects of cannabinoids and highlight our current knowledge regarding the therapeutic potential of endocannabinoid signaling and modulation.

ACPA and JWH-133 modulate the vascular tone of superior mesenteric arteries through cannabinoid receptors, BKCa channels, and nitric oxide dependent mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Some cannabinoids, a family of compounds derived from Cannabis sativa (marijuana), have previously shown vasodilator effects in several studies, a feature that makes them suitable for the generation of a potential treatment for hypertension. The mechanism underlying this vasodilator effect in arteries is still controversial. In this report, we explored how the synthetic cannabinoids ACPA (CB₁-selective agonist) and JWH-133 (CB₂-selective agonist) regulate the vascular tone of rat superior mesenteric arteries.

METHODS

To screen the expression of CB₁ (Cannabinoid receptor 1) and CB₂ (Cannabinoid receptor 2) receptors in arterial rings or isolated smooth muscle cells obtained from the artery, immunocytochemistry, immunohistochemistry, and confocal microscopy were performed. In addition, the effects on vascular tone induced by the two cannabinoids were tested in isometric tension experiments in rings obtained from superior mesenteric arteries. The participation of voltage and calcium-activated potassium channel of big conductance (BK_Ca) and the role of nitric oxide (NO) release on the vascular effects induced by ACPA and JWH-133 were tested.

RESULTS

CB₁ and CB₂ receptors were highly expressed in the rat superior mesenteric artery, in both smooth muscle and endothelium. The vasodilation effect shown by ACPA was endothelium-dependent through a mechanism involving CB₁ receptors, BK_Ca channel activation, and NO release; meanwhile, the vasodilator effect of JWH-133 was induced by the activation of CB₂ receptors located in smooth muscle and by a CB₂ receptor-independent mechanism inducing NO release.

CONCLUSIONS

CB₁ and CB₂ receptor activation in superior mesenteric artery causes vasorelaxation by mechanisms involving BK_Ca channels and NO release.

The endocannabinoid system: 'NO' longer anonymous in the control of nitrergic signalling?

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a key cellular signalling system that has been implicated in the regulation of diverse cellular functions. Importantly, growing evidence suggests that the biological actions of the ECS may, in part, be mediated through its ability to regulate the production and/or release of nitric oxide, a ubiquitous bioactive molecule, which functions as a versatile signalling intermediate. Herein, we review and discuss evidence pertaining to ECS-mediated regulation of nitric oxide production, as well as the involvement of reactive nitrogen species in regulating ECS-induced signal transduction by highlighting emerging work supporting nitrergic modulation of ECS function. Importantly, the studies outlined reveal that interactions between the ECS and nitrergic signalling systems can be both stimulatory and inhibitory in nature, depending on cellular context. Moreover, such crosstalk may act to maintain proper cell function, whereas abnormalities in either system can undermine cellular homoeostasis and contribute to various pathologies associated with their dysregulation. Consequently, future studies targeting these signalling systems may provide new insights into the potential role of the ECS–nitric oxide signalling axis in disease development and/or lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of nitrosative stress-related neurological, cardiovascular, and metabolic disorders.

Activation of CB1 receptors by 2-arachidonoylglycerol attenuates vasoconstriction induced by U46619 and angiotensin II in human and rat pulmonary arteries

Recent evidence suggests that endocannabinoids acting via cannabinoid CB₁ receptors may modulate vascular responses of various vasoconstrictors in the rodent systemic vasculature. The aim of the study was to investigate whether endocannabinoids modulate the contractile responses evoked by a thromboxane A₂ analog (U46619), angiotensin II (ANG II), serotonin (5-HT), and phenylephrine, which stimulate distinct G_q/11 protein-coupled receptors (thromboxane, ANG II type 1, 5-HT₂, and α₁-adrenergic receptors) in isolated endothelium-intact human and rat pulmonary arteries (hPAs and rPAs, respectively). The CB₁ receptor antagonist AM251 (1 μM) and diacylglycerol lipase (2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis enzyme) inhibitor RHC80267 (40 μM) enhanced contractions induced by U46619 in hPAs and rPAs and by ANG II in rPAs in an endothelium-dependent manner. AM251 did not influence vasoconstrictions induced by 5-HT or phenylephrine in rPAs. The monoacylglycerol lipase (2-arachidonoylglycerol degradation enzyme) inhibitor JZL184 (1 μM), but not the fatty acid amide hydrolase (anandamide degradation enzyme) inhibitor URB597 (1 μM), attenuated contractions evoked by U46619 in hPAs and rPAs and ANG II in rPAs. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol concentration-dependently induced relaxation of hPAs, which was inhibited by endothelium denudation or AM251 and enhanced by JZL184. Expression of CB₁ receptors was confirmed in hPAs and rPAs using Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The present study shows the protective interaction between the endocannabinoid system and vasoconstriction in response to U46619 and ANG II in the human and rat pulmonary circulation. U46619 and ANG II may stimulate rapid endothelial release of endocannabinoids (mainly 2-arachidonoylglycerol), leading to CB₁ receptor-dependent and/or CB₁ receptor-independent vasorelaxation, which in the negative feedback mechanism reduces later agonist-induced vasoconstriction.