The distinct roles of exosomes in tumor-stroma crosstalk within gastric tumor microenvironment

Immune capture and protein profiling of small extracellular vesicles from human plasma

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), the key players in inter-cellular communication, are produced by all cell types and are present in all body fluids. Analysis of the proteome content is an important approach in structural and functional studies of these vesicles. EVs circulating in human plasma are heterogeneous in size, cellular origin, and functions. This heterogeneity and the potential presence of contamination with plasma components such as lipoprotein particles and soluble plasma proteins represent a challenge in profiling the proteome of EV subsets by mass spectrometry. An immunocapture strategy prior to mass spectrometry may be used to isolate a homogeneous subpopulation of small EVs (sEV) with a specific endocytic origin from plasma or other biofluids. Immunocapture selectively separates EV subpopulations in biofluids based on the presence of a unique protein carried on the vesicle surface. The advantages and disadvantages of EV immune capture as a preparative step for mass spectrometry are discussed.

Exosomal noncoding RNAs in gynecological cancers: implications for therapy resistance and biomarkers

Gynecologic cancers, including ovarian cancer (OC), cervical cancer (CC), and endometrial cancer (EC), pose a serious threat to women's health and quality of life due to their high incidence and lethality. Therapeutic resistance in tumors refers to reduced sensitivity of tumor cells to therapeutic drugs or radiation, which compromises the efficacy of treatment or renders it ineffective. Therapeutic resistance significantly contributes to treatment failure in gynecologic tumors, although the specific molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles released and received by distinct kinds of cells. Exosomes contain proteins, lipids, and RNAs closely linked to their origins and functions. Recent studies have demonstrated that exosomal ncRNAs may be involved in intercellular communication and can modulate the progression of tumorigenesis, aggravation and metastasis, tumor microenvironment (TME), and drug resistance. Besides, exosomal ncRNAs also have the potential to become significant diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in various of diseases. In this paper, we reviewed the biological roles and mechanisms of exosomal ncRNAs in the drug resistance of gynecologic tumors, as well as explored the potential of exosomal ncRNAs acting as the liquid biopsy molecular markers in gynecologic cancers.

Bioactive compounds and biological functions of medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are tiny lipid bilayer-enclosed membrane particles released from a variety of cell types into the surrounding environment. These EVs have massive participated in cell-to-cell communication and interspecies communication. In recent years, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) and "exosome-like" EVs populations found in distinct plants have attracted widespread attention. Especially, research on medicinal plant-derived extracellular vesicles (MPDEVs) are increasing, which are considered a kind of promising natural compound. This review summarizes current knowledge on MPDEVs in terms of bioactive compounds, including small RNA, protein, lipid, and metabolite, have been found on the surface and/or in the lumen of MPDEVs. Moreover, both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that MPDEVs exert broad biomedical functions, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, modulate microbiota, etc. MPDEVs may be a better substitute than animal-derived extracellular vesicles (ADEVs) because of safety and biocompatibility in the future.

The biological role of extracellular vesicles in gastric cancer metastasis

Gastric cancer (GC) is a tumor characterized by high incidence and mortality, with metastasis being the primary cause of poor prognosis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are an important intercellular communication medium. They contain bioactive substances such as proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. EVs play a crucial biological role in the process of GC metastasis. Through mechanisms such as remodeling the tumor microenvironment (TME), immune suppression, promoting angiogenesis, and facilitating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and mesothelial-mesenchymal transition (MMT), EVs promote invasion and metastasis in GC. Further exploration of the biological roles of EVs will contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying GC metastasis and may provide novel targets and strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of GC. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms by which EVs influence GC metastasis from four aspects: remodeling the TME, modulating the immune system, influencing angiogenesis, and modulating the processes of EMT and MMT. Finally, we briefly summarized the organotropism of GC metastasis as well as the potential and limitations of EVs in GC.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: Current Progress and Prospects

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, ranging in size from 30-150nm, which can be derived from various types of cells. In recent years, mammalian-derived exosomes have been extensively studied and found to play a crucial role in regulating intercellular communication, thereby influencing the development and progression of numerous diseases. Traditional Chinese medicine has employed plant-based remedies for thousands of years, and an increasing body of evidence suggests that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) share similarities with mammalian-derived exosomes in terms of their structure and function. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in the study of PELNs and their potential implications for human health. Specifically, we summarize the roles of PELNs in respiratory, digestive, circulatory, and other diseases. Furthermore, we have extensively investigated the potential shortcomings and challenges in current research regarding the mechanism of action, safety, administration routes, isolation and extraction methods, characterization and identification techniques, as well as drug-loading capabilities. Based on these considerations, we propose recommendations for future research directions. Overall, our review highlights the potential of PELNs as a promising area of research, with broad implications for the treatment of human diseases. We anticipate continued interest in this area and hope that our summary of recent findings will stimulate further exploration into the implications of PELNs for human health.

Extracellular vesicles in gastric cancer: role of exosomal lncRNA and microRNA as diagnostic and therapeutic targets

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, play a crucial role in intercellular communication and have emerged as important mediators in the development and progression of gastric cancer. This review discusses the current understanding of the role of EVs, particularly exosomal lncRNA and microRNA, in gastric cancer and their potential as diagnostic and therapeutic targets. Exosomes are small membrane-bound particles secreted by both cancer cells and stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment. They contain various ncRNA and biomolecules, which can be transferred to recipient cells to promote tumor growth and metastasis. In this review, we highlighted the importance of exosomal lncRNA and microRNA in gastric cancer. Exosomal lncRNAs have been shown to regulate gene expression by interacting with transcription factors or chromatin-modifying enzymes, which regulate gene expression by binding to target mRNAs. We also discuss the potential use of exosomal lncRNAs and microRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers for gastric cancer. Exosomes can be isolated from various bodily fluids, including blood, urine, and saliva. They contain specific molecules that reflect the molecular characteristics of the tumor, making them promising candidates for non-invasive diagnostic tests. Finally, the potential of targeting exosomal lncRNAs and microRNAs as a therapeutic strategy for gastric cancer were reviewed as wee. Inhibition of specific molecules within exosomes has been shown to suppress tumor growth and metastasis in preclinical models. In conclusion, this review article provides an overview of the current understanding of the role of exosomal lncRNA and microRNA in gastric cancer. We suggest that further research into these molecules could lead to new diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies for this deadly disease.

Targeting the tumor microenvironment: Potential strategy for cancer therapeutics

Cellular and stromal components including tumor cells, immune cells, mesenchymal cells, cancer-linked fibroblasts, and extracellular matrix, constituent tumor microenvironment (TME). TME plays a crucial role in reprogramming tumor initiation, uncontrolled proliferation, invasion and metastasis as well as response to therapeutic modalities. In recent years targeting the TME has developed as a potential strategy for treatment of cancer because of its life-threatening functions in restricting tumor development and modulating responses to standard-of-care medicines. Cold atmospheric plasma, oncolytic viral therapy, bacterial therapy, nano-vaccine, and repurposed pharmaceuticals with combination therapy, antiangiogenic drugs, and immunotherapies are among the most effective therapies directed by TME that have either been clinically authorized or are currently being studied. This article discusses above-mentioned therapies in light of targeting TME. We also cover problems related to the TME-targeted therapies, as well as future insights and practical uses in this rapidly growing field.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in nanomedicine for human disease and therapeutic modalities

BACKGROUND

The past few years have witnessed a significant increase in research related to plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) in biological and medical applications. Using biochemical technologies, multiple independent groups have demonstrated the important roles of PDEVs as potential mediators involved in cell-cell communication and the exchange of bio-information between species. Recently, several contents have been well identified in PDEVs, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other active substances. These cargoes carried by PDEVs could be transferred into recipient cells and remarkably influence their biological behaviors associated with human diseases, such as cancers and inflammatory diseases. This review summarizes the latest updates regarding PDEVs and focuses on its important role in nanomedicine applications, as well as the potential of PDEVs as drug delivery strategies to develop diagnostic and therapeutic agents for the clinical management of diseases, especially like cancers.

CONCLUSION

Considering its unique advantages, especially high stability, intrinsic bioactivity and easy absorption, further elaboration on molecular mechanisms and biological factors driving the function of PDEVs will provide new horizons for the treatment of human disease.

Gastric immune homeostasis imbalance: An important factor in the development of gastric mucosal diseases

The gastric mucosal immune system is a unique immune organ independent of systemic immunity that not only maintains nutrient absorption but also plays a role in resisting the external environment. Gastric mucosal immune disorder leads to a series of gastric mucosal diseases, including autoimmune gastritis (AIG)-related diseases, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-induced diseases, and various types of gastric cancer (GC). Therefore, understanding the role of gastric mucosal immune homeostasis in gastric mucosal protection and the relationship between mucosal immunity and gastric mucosal diseases is very important. This review focuses on the protective effect of gastric mucosal immune homeostasis on the gastric mucosa, as well as multiple gastric mucosal diseases caused by gastric immune disorders. We hope to offer new prospects for the prevention and treatment of gastric mucosal diseases.

Exosomal circular RNAs: A chief culprit in cancer chemotherapy resistance

Chemotherapy is one of the primary treatments for malignant tumors. However, the acquired drug resistance hinders clinical efficacy and leads to treatment failure in most patients. Exosomes are cell-derived vesicles with a diameter of 30-150 nm carrying and delivering substances such as DNAs, RNAs, lipids, and proteins for cellular communication in tumor development. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) present covalently closed-loop RNA structures, which regulate tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis by controlling different genes and signaling pathways. CircRNAs are abundant and stably expressed in exosomes. Recent studies have shown that they play critical roles in chemotherapy resistance in various cancers. In this review, we summarized the origin of exosomes and discussed the regulation mechanism of exosomal circRNAs in cancer drug resistance.

Adenosine signaling: Optimal target for gastric cancer immunotherapy

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignancy and leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Due to asymptomatic or only nonspecific early symptoms, GC patients are usually in the advanced stage at first diagnosis and miss the best opportunity of treatment. Immunotherapies, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), have dramatically changed the landscape of available treatment options for advanced-stage cancer patients. However, with regards to existing ICIs, the clinical benefit of monotherapy for advanced gastric cancer (AGC) is quite limited. Therefore, it is urgent to explore an optimal target for the treatment of GC. In this review, we summarize the expression profiles and prognostic value of 20 common immune checkpoint-related genes in GC from Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) database, and then find that the adenosinergic pathway plays an indispensable role in the occurrence and development of GC. Moreover, we discuss the pathophysiological function of adenosinergic pathway in cancers. The accumulation of extracellular adenosine inhibits the normal function of immune effector cells and facilitate the effect of immunosuppressive cells to foster GC cells proliferation and migration. Finally, we provide insights into potential clinical application of adenosinergic-targeting therapies for GC patients.

Identification of Tumor Mutation Burden, Microsatellite Instability, and Somatic Copy Number Alteration Derived Nine Gene Signatures to Predict Clinical Outcomes in STAD

Genomic features, including tumor mutation burden (TMB), microsatellite instability (MSI), and somatic copy number alteration (SCNA), had been demonstrated to be involved with the tumor microenvironment (TME) and outcome of gastric cancer (GC). We obtained profiles of TMB, MSI, and SCNA by processing 405 GC data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and then conducted a comprehensive analysis though “iClusterPlus.” A total of two subgroups were generated, with distinguished prognosis, somatic mutation burden, copy number changes, and immune landscape. We revealed that Cluster1 was marked by a better prognosis, accompanied by higher TMB, MSIsensor score, TMEscore, and lower SCNA burden. Based on these clusters, we screened 196 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which were subsequently projected into univariate Cox survival analysis. We constructed a 9-gene immune risk score (IRS) model using LASSO-penalized logistic regression. Moreover, the prognostic prediction of IRS was verified by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis and nomogram plot. Another independent Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) contained specimens from 109 GC patients was designed as an external validation. Our works suggested that the 9‐gene‐signature prediction model, which was derived from TMB, MSI, and SCNA, was a promising predictive tool for clinical outcomes in GC patients. This novel methodology may help clinicians uncover the underlying mechanisms and guide future treatment strategies.

Natural Compounds Targeting Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts against Digestive System Tumor Progression: Therapeutic Insights

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are critical for cancer occurrence and progression in the tumor microenvironment (TME), due to their versatile roles in extracellular matrix remodeling, tumor–stroma crosstalk, immunomodulation, and angiogenesis. CAFs are the most abundant stromal component in the TME and undergo epigenetic modification and abnormal signaling cascade activation, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and Wnt pathways that maintain the distinct phenotype of CAFs, which differs from normal fibroblasts. CAFs have been considered therapeutic targets due to their putative oncogenic functions. Current digestive system cancer treatment strategies often result in lower survival outcomes and fail to prevent cancer progression; therefore, comprehensive characterization of the tumor-promoting and -restraining CAF activities might facilitate the design of new therapeutic approaches. In this review, we summarize the enormous literature on natural compounds that mediate the crosstalk of CAFs with digestive system cancer cells, discuss how the biology and the multifaceted functions of CAFs contribute to cancer progression, and finally, pave the way for CAF-related antitumor therapies.

The Incredible Potential of Exosomes as Biomarkers in the Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is common cancer that is one of the leading causes of cancerrelated deaths around the world. The creation of new biomarkers for this disease is an important public health strategy for lowering the disease's mortality rate. According to new research, exosomes may be important sources of biomarkers in CRC. Exosomes are nanometer-sized membrane vesicles (30-200 nm) secreted by normal and cancer cells that transport RNA and proteins between cells and are thought to help with intercellular communication. Exosomes have been linked to CRC initiation and progression, and some differentially expressed RNAs and proteins in exosomes have been identified as potential cancer detection candidates. As a result, studying the relationship between exosomes and CRC may aid in the development of new biomarkers for the disease. This article discusses the importance of exosomes as biomarkers in the diagnosis of CRC, as well as their use in the treatment of CRC metastasis, chemoresistance, and recrudescence. The benefits and drawbacks of using exosomes as tumour markers are also discussed.