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Reich N, Mannino M, Kotler S. Using caffeine as a chemical means to induce flow states. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 159:105577. [PMID: 38331128 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Flow is an intrinsically rewarding state characterised by positive affect and total task absorption. Because cognitive and physical performance are optimal in flow, chemical means to facilitate this state are appealing. Caffeine, a non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist, has been emphasized as a potential flow-inducer. Thus, we review the psychological and biological effects of caffeine that, conceptually, enhance flow. Caffeine may facilitate flow through various effects, including: i) upregulation of dopamine D1/D2 receptor affinity in reward-associated brain areas, leading to greater energetic arousal and 'wanting'; ii) protection of dopaminergic neurons; iii) increases in norepinephrine release and alertness, which offset sleep-deprivation and hypoarousal; iv) heightening of parasympathetic high frequency heart rate variability, resulting in improved cortical stress appraisal, v) modification of striatal endocannabinoid-CB1 receptor-signalling, leading to enhanced stress tolerance; and vi) changes in brain network activity in favour of executive function and flow. We also discuss the application of caffeine to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and caveats. We hope to inspire studies assessing the use of caffeine to induce flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Reich
- Faculty of Health and Medicine, Biomedical & Life Sciences Division, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK; The ALBORADA Drug Discovery Institute, University of Cambridge, Island Research Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK.
| | - Michael Mannino
- Flow Research Collective, USA; Miami Dade College, Miami, FL, USA
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Bernard BN, Louise LC, Louise D. The Effects of Carbohydrates, in Isolation and Combined with Caffeine, on Cognitive Performance and Mood-Current Evidence and Future Directions. Nutrients 2018; 10:E192. [PMID: 29425182 PMCID: PMC5852768 DOI: 10.3390/nu10020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
This review examines the effects of carbohydrates, delivered individually and in combination with caffeine, on a range of cognitive domains and subjective mood. There is evidence for beneficial effects of glucose at a dose of 25 g on episodic memory, but exploration of dose effects has not been systematic and the effects on other cognitive domains is not known. Factors contributing to the differential sensitivity to glucose facilitation include age, task difficulty/demand, task domain, and glucoregulatory control. There is modest evidence to suggest modulating glycemic response may impact cognitive function. The evidence presented in this review identifies dose ranges of glucose and caffeine which improve cognition, but fails to find convincing consistent synergistic effects of combining caffeine and glucose. Whilst combining glucose and caffeine has been shown to facilitate cognitive performance and mood compared to placebo or glucose alone, the relative contribution of caffeine and glucose to the observed effects is difficult to ascertain, due to the paucity of studies that have appropriately compared the effects of these ingredients combined and in isolation. This review identifies a number of methodological challenges which need to be considered in the design of future hypothesis driven research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyle Neil Bernard
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Lawton Clare Louise
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Dye Louise
- Leeds Nutrition and Behaviour Group, School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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Torri L, Jeon SY, Piochi M, Morini G, Kim KO. Consumer perception of balsamic vinegar: A cross-cultural study between Korea and Italy. Food Res Int 2016; 91:148-160. [PMID: 28290319 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Understanding cross-cultural differences in food perception is a key issue of food research in order to understand consumer behaviour in different countries. The objective of this study was to explore potential cultural differences of balsamic vinegar perception between Korean and Italian consumers using the sorted napping method. Nine balsamic vinegars different in terms of ingredients, aging time, and origin were evaluated by Korean (n=50) and Italian (n=49) consumers using sorted napping. Familiarity and food matching were also examined. Descriptive analysis was performed to verify the attitude of the consumers in product description. The results obtained from two groups of consumers in Korea and Italy revealed a higher description attitude of the Italians (higher number of total elicited attributes, of attributes in common with the trained panel, of attributes shared with the vocabulary reported in literature, of significant specific positive product-attribute associations). Italian subjects generated various descriptors associated with the European gastronomic culture (aromatic herbs, fortified wine, dried figs, Indian fig, Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese), whereas Korean consumers used more terms related to the Asian food culture (red ginseng, Chinese medicine, Japanese apricot, teriyaki sauce, persimmon vinegar, balloon flower roots). Moreover, cultural differences of food matching were also observed: the Italians would pair the balsamic vinegars mainly with vegetables, fruits and cheese, while Koreans would combine the balsamic vinegars preferably with bread, vegetables and meat. In conclusion, familiarity resulted the main factors for cross-cultural differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Torri
- University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, 12042 Bra (CN), Italy
| | - Seon-Young Jeon
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea
| | - Maria Piochi
- University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, 12042 Bra (CN), Italy
| | - Gabriella Morini
- University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, 12042 Bra (CN), Italy
| | - Kwang-Ok Kim
- Department of Food Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea.
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Kim YK, Jombart L, Valentin D, Kim KO. A cross-cultural study using Napping®: Do Korean and French consumers perceive various green tea products differently? Food Res Int 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2013.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Panek LM, Swoboda C, Bendlin A, Temple JL. Caffeine increases liking and consumption of novel-flavored yogurt. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 227:425-36. [PMID: 23354532 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-2971-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Caffeine has been shown to increase preference for beverages with which it is paired; however, it is not known if caffeine alters liking for foods with which it is paired indirectly. OBJECTIVES The purpose of the current experiment was to test the hypothesis that a caffeinated beverage paired with a novel-flavored yogurt will increase preference for that yogurt compared to one paired with placebo. We also tested the hypothesis that liking would increase more when caffeine was paired with high energy density yogurt. METHODS Men and women (n = 62) were randomized to receive a beverage containing placebo (PLA) or caffeine (CAF) and to consume a low (LED) or high energy density (HED), novel-flavored yogurt. Participants rated, ranked, and consumed seven novel-flavored yogurts and then had a target yogurt paired with either PLA or CAF over four consecutive days. RESULTS In general, yogurt liking increased over time, the HED yogurt was liked more than the LED yogurt, and yogurt paired with caffeine was liked more than yogurt paired with placebo. Participants showed a significant increase in liking of LED yogurt paired with caffeine compared to those with LED yogurt paired with placebo. CONCLUSIONS Caffeine administration may increase liking and consumption of novel-flavored foods, particularly if the food is not highly liked at baseline. This suggests that caffeine pairing may be a way to increase liking of LED foods, such as vegetables and fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah M Panek
- Department of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, 1 Farber Hall, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
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Aluqmany R, Mansoor R, Saad U, Abdullah R, Ahamd A. Consumption of energy drinks among female secondary school students, Almadinah Almunawwarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2011. J Taibah Univ Med Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtumed.2013.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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Alford C, Hamilton-Morris J, Verster JC. The effects of energy drink in combination with alcohol on performance and subjective awareness. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 222:519-32. [PMID: 22456862 PMCID: PMC3395356 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2677-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE This study investigated the coadministration of an energy drink with alcohol to study the effects on subjective intoxication and objective performance. OBJECTIVES This study aims to evaluate the objective and subjective effects of alcohol versus placebo at two alcohol doses, alone and in combination with an energy drink, in a balanced order, placebo-controlled, double-blind design. METHODS Two groups of ten healthy volunteers, mean (SD) age of 24 (6.5), participated in the study. One group consumed energy drink containing 80 mg of caffeine and the other consumed a placebo drink, with both receiving two alcohol doses (0.046 and 0.087% breathalyser alcohol concentration). Tests included breath alcohol assessment, objective measures of performance (reaction time, word memory and Stroop task) and subjective visual analogue mood scales. RESULTS Participants showed significantly impaired reaction time and memory after alcohol compared to the no alcohol condition and had poorer memory after the higher alcohol dose. Stroop performance was improved with the energy drink plus alcohol combination compared to the placebo drink plus alcohol combination. Participants felt significant subjective dose-related impairment after alcohol compared to no alcohol. Neither breath alcohol concentration nor the subjective measures showed a significant difference between the energy drink and the placebo energy drink when combined with alcohol. CONCLUSIONS Subjective effects reflected awareness of alcohol intoxication and sensitivity to increasing alcohol dose. There were no overall significant group differences for subjective measures between energy drink and placebo groups in the presence of alcohol and no evidence that the energy drink masked the subjective effects of alcohol at either dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Alford
- Psychology Department, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK.
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Verster JC, Aufricht C, Alford C. Energy drinks mixed with alcohol: misconceptions, myths, and facts. Int J Gen Med 2012; 5:187-98. [PMID: 22399863 PMCID: PMC3295617 DOI: 10.2147/ijgm.s29313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Whilst energy drinks improve performance and feelings of alertness, recent articles suggest that energy drink consumption combined with alcohol may reduce perception of alcohol intoxication, or lead to increased alcohol or drug use. This review discusses the available scientific evidence on the effects of mixing energy drinks with alcohol. Methods A literature search was performed using the keywords “energy drink and Red Bull®” and consulting Medline/Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Embase. Results There is little evidence that energy drinks antagonize the behavioral effects of alcohol, and there is no consistent evidence that energy drinks alter the perceived level of intoxication of people who mix energy drinks with alcohol. No clinically relevant cardiovascular or other adverse effects have been reported for healthy subjects combining energy drinks with alcohol, although there are no long-term investigations currently available. Finally, whilst several surveys have shown associations, there is no direct evidence that coadministration of energy drinks increases alcohol consumption, or initiates drug and alcohol dependence or abuse. Conclusion Although some reports suggest that energy drinks lead to reduced awareness of intoxication and increased alcohol consumption, a review of the available literature shows that these views are not supported by direct or reliable scientific evidence. A personality with higher levels of risk-taking behavior may be the primary reason for increased alcohol and drug abuse per se. The coconsumption of energy drinks being one of the many expressions of that type of lifestyle and personality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris C Verster
- Utrecht University, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Sünram-Lea SI, Owen-Lynch J, Robinson SJ, Jones E, Hu H. The effect of energy drinks on cortisol levels, cognition and mood during a fire-fighting exercise. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 219:83-97. [PMID: 21710168 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-011-2379-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Acute stress has been associated with changes in cognitive performance and mood, and these have been in part associated with stress-related increased release of cortisol. Both glucose and caffeine consumed in isolation have been shown to moderate cortisol response and affect cognitive performance and affect mood; however, there has been very little research into their behavioural and physiological effects when taken in combination. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the two substances in combination under stressful and physically demanding conditions (fire-fighting training) on cognition, mood and cortisol release. METHODS Using a double-blind, mixed measures design, 81 participants were administered a 330-ml drink containing either (1) 50 g glucose and 40 mg caffeine, (2) 10.25 g of fructose/glucose and 80 mg caffeine or a placebo drink and tested across a range of cognitive tasks, mood and physiological measures. RESULTS The results showed an increase in grip strength and improved memory performance after ingestion of the drink containing 50 g glucose and 40 mg caffeine, and both active drinks resulted in improved performance on the information-processing task compared to the placebo. In terms of mood effects, the drink containing 50 g glucose and 40 mg caffeine led to a reduction in anxiety and significantly reduced self-reported levels of stress following the fire-fighter training. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of this study, in situations of stress combined with physical performance, administration of an energy drink containing glucose and caffeine might be an easy to implement and cost effective way to maintain mental performance levels and to ameliorate the negative effects of stress on mood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra I Sünram-Lea
- Department of Psychology, Fylde College, University of Lancaster, Lancaster, LA 1 4YW, UK.
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Michon C, O’Sullivan M, Sheehan E, Delahunty C, Kerry J. Study on the influence of age, gender and familiarity with the product on the acceptance of vegetable soups. Food Qual Prefer 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Adan A, Serra-Grabulosa JM. Effects of caffeine and glucose, alone and combined, on cognitive performance. Hum Psychopharmacol 2010; 25:310-7. [PMID: 20521321 DOI: 10.1002/hup.1115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the effects of consuming caffeine and glucose, alone and combined, on cognitive performance. METHODS Seventy-two healthy subjects (36 women; age range 18-25) were tested early in the morning, having fasted overnight. Using a double-blind, randomised design, subjects received one of the following beverages: water (150 ml); water plus 75 mg of caffeine; water plus 75 g of glucose; water plus and 75 mg of caffeine and 75 g of glucose. Attention, manual dexterity, visuo-spatial and frontal functions, memory (immediate, consolidation and working) and subjective state were all assessed. RESULTS The combination of caffeine and glucose had beneficial effects on attention (sequential reaction time tasks) and on learning and consolidation of verbal memory, effects not being observed when either substance was administered alone. Caffeine only showed improvement in simple reaction time and glucose in simple and one sequential reaction time tasks and in the manual dexterity assembly task. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that the synergistic effects of caffeine and glucose can benefit sustained attention and verbal memory, even with adequate levels of activation of the subjects. However, further studies are required, controlling for different levels of cognitive effort and also considering measurements of neural activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Adan
- Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Ruxton CHS. The impact of caffeine on mood, cognitive function, performance and hydration: a review of benefits and risks. NUTR BULL 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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